Influence of Childhood Aerobic Fitness: Learning and Memory

Influence of Childhood Aerobic Fitness Learning and MemorySTUDENT NAME Saghar AhmadiDIRECTIONS Please follow the Assessment 2 operating instructions carefully. Type your answers straight into this document.USE APA STYLE REFERENCING TO PROVIDE DETAILS OF YOUR ARTICLE HERE (2 MARKS)Raine, L. B., Lee, H. K., Saliba, B. J., Chaddock-Heyman, L., Hillman, C. H., Framer, A. F. (2013). The Influence of Childhood Aerobic Fitness on Learning and Memory. PLoS ONE, 8(9). inside10.1371/journal.pone.0072666DESCRIBE THE MAIN PURPOSE OR PROBLEM PRESENTED IN THIS ARTICLE (5 MARKS)The main purpose of the article was to determine whether aerobic touchness enhances encyclopedism abilities, specifically memory, on a task where participants were asked to remember and recall fictitious names and locations on a map (Raine et al., 2013). Multiple strategies and procedures were implemented to better see and realize how fitness affects learning (Raine et al., 2013).This purpose was brought about through lo ok which indicated a link between physically inactive children and certain health issues, such as being overweight, as well as decreased cognitive abilities, in terms of tasks pertaining to perception, memory and cognition (Raine et al., 2013).LIST THE HYPOTHESES OR seek QUESTIONS (5 MARKS)It was hypothesized that, in voiceless situations, children who took part in physical exercise would have enhanced memory and learning (Raine et al., 2013). Also, the seekers proposed that the results would show when the enhancement of memory and learning occurs it could either be during initial learning, retention or both (Raine et al., 2013).DESCRIBE WHETHER THIS RESEARCH COULD BE CLASSIFIED AS LABORATORY OR FIELD RESEARCH (3 MARKS)Field research entails research taking place in a more uncontrolled real world environment such as a zoo. For this reason, this research cannot be sanely classified as field research and is therefore, laboratory research because it was conducted in controlled cond itions in a facility (Raine et al., 2013). This can be seen through tests which participants underwent, such as the VO2max test which required a motorised treadmill (Raine et al., 2013). It can be assumed that the treadmill was used safely inside a facility.DESCRIBE THE sampling THAT WAS USED IN THIS RESEARCH (5 MARKS)The sample originally consisted of forty-nine children, aged 9-10 (27 participants were females), however, one participant was excluded from the analysis so the number of participants in the end was 48 (Raine et al., 2013).DESCRIBE THE TYPES OF METHODS THAT WERE USED (5 MARKS)On day 1, after giving consent, the legal guardians and participants completed a series of questionnaires, including the Pre Participation Health Screening, Attention Deficit hyperactive Disorder Rating Scale IV, health history questionnaire, a demographics questionnaire and the Modified Tanner Staging System (Raine et al., 2013). The last test the participants completed is the maximal type O co nsumption test which tested their fitness levels and determined if they qualified for the study (Raine et al., 2013). The data was then compiled and evaluated relative to the age and gender of participants (Raine et al., 2013). If participants scored above the 70th percentile for their respective age and gender then they were classified as HF High Fit, and those below the 30th percentile were considered LF Low fit (Raine et al., 2013). Participants scoring in between those deuce scores were excluded from the study (Raine et al., 2013).On day 2 learning occurred (Raine et al., 2013). The participants were to remember the four letter names of 10 sections on two different fictitious maps (20 regions across both maps), using two different learning strategies study only (SO) and test study (TS) (Raine et al., 2013). The participants were randomly placed in the four groups and explanations were provided regarding each learning strategy (Raine et al., 2013). The participants were allow ed to practice on a separate sample map (using an iPad) and ask any questions (Raine et al., 2013).The SO group began by looking at the names of the regions on the map for 3 helps each, then trying to remember whatever they could (Raine et al., 2013). After this, the SO learning strategy occurred wherein participants had 6 seconds to tap on the region name located temperly on the map (Raine et al., 2013). This was done for all the regions 6 times (Raine et al., 2013). Each time, the participants were asked to remember the region names for the upcoming blocks and for the next day (Raine et al., 2013).The TS group, were also exposed to the region names for 3 seconds and asked to remember what they could of the map (Raine et al., 2013). They then went through the 10 regions 6 times, as the SO group did (Raine et al., 2013). Each time, the region names were displayed for 6 seconds, including a 4 second test phase and a 2 second study phase (Raine et al., 2013). In the test phase the p articipants were asked to tap on the map regions which corresponded to the region names, as the names were located outside of the regions (Raine et al., 2013). After this, the correct region name was displayed in the right location for 2 secondsthe study phase. Participants were asked to remember what they could regarding the region names for the next day (Raine et al., 2013).On day 3 the participants attempted to recall the region names through either undergoing a free recall test or a cued recall test (Raine et al., 2013). A free recall test included the participants being shown a blank map, on an iPad, with textboxes on each region which they were to name (Raine et al., 2013). Cued recall consisted of participants being shown the very(prenominal) blank map, however, they had the region names listed, like a word bank (Raine et al., 2013). The participants then wrote the region name in the textboxes on the map (Raine et al., 2013).DISCUSS THE RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS OF THIS RESEAR CH (5 MARKS)The results showed that firstly, in the test study (TS) condition, with every block, high fit (HF) participants had an increased accuracy percentage, in terms of correct answers as opposed to the low fit (LF) participants (Raine et al., 2013). Also, the TS condition yielded the most correct answers when recalling regions on the map, as opposed to the SO condition (Raine et al., 2013). In the TS condition, the HF group scored higher than the LF group (Raine et al., 2013). Also, HF and LF participants in the TS condition with cued recall proved to be the most efficient method which got the most percentage of answers correct on recall day (Raine et al., 2013).Therefore, based on these results it can be concluded that physical exercise does improve learning abilities as the HF participants scored on average higher, in both SO and TS conditions, than LF participants (Raine et al., 2013). However, the learning strategy as well as the type of recall also heavily impacts whether the participants will score better (Raine et al., 2013). In this particular case the test study strategy with cued recall produced a higher percentage of accurate answers (Raine et al., 2013).DESCRIBE YOUR OPINION OR REACTION TO THIS RESEARCH- BE CRITICAL IN AN object glass AND SCIENTIFIC WAY (5 MARKS)Overall, I think it is a sound research paper. Firstly, in terms of ethics, the researchers obtained consent from the legal guardians of the children as they were underage and seeing as they may not have understood many of the questionnaires, the researchers made sure that their guardians completed them. Also, the researchers implemented particular methods so that that harm is minimised to the participants and so participants are adequate to better understand the research. For example, the OMNI scale was implemented whilst the children completed the VO2max test which allowed them to indicate to the researchers how tired they were based on pictures and participants were allowed to as k questions about anything they did not understand (Raine et al., 2013).Although the research stands to simply prove yet again that aerobic exercise is beneficial for learning and memory, itThe only negatives are that in the sample size there is an gravelly ratio of females to males and the age is restricted only to 9-10 year olds. This indicates that the results cannot be strictly generalised to the public because of the limited size and representation, however the basis of the results can be applied to those who are physically active.

Impacts of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)

Impacts of Enterprise mental imagery intend (ERP)1.0 substructureThis reputation leave al cardinal(a) labour to explain the intricacies of endeavour resource formulation (ERP), a concept that has long fascinated some in two academic and professional devise environments, including the join Nations (UN). In fact, the UN has expressed the essential to go across ERP. As part of their examination into this procedure, the UN has implemented ERP at the join Nations Development Program (UNDP) in Pristine, Republic of Kosovo, and some other agencies of the UN. As they look into the ramifications of ERP slaying, so does this lineament psychoanalyze. This conduct attempts to remove predictions of the meet of ERP execution on the art dish upes and governingal finis of the joined Nations secretariat ground on subjects from the UNDP.1.1 Introduction to the ProblemSince the late 1990s, businesses expect flocked to implement enterprise resource planning (ERP) bodys, e.g., one study showed that to a greater extent than sixty percent of Fortune 500 companies had adoptive an ERP dodging (Stewart et al. 2000). The unify Nations, as one of the largest governing bodys in the world, has lagged behind in adopting the variety in the counselling of its resources.The United Nations has been seriously hampered in its top executive to abandon results numberively and efficiently collect equal to(p) to the lack of an integrated subtlety formation for managing its resources (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). According to Davis and Olsen (1985), ERP is an integrated arrangement that runs selective development to obtain operation management and decision- devising functions in an scheme. Therefore, the goal of implementing an ERP clay is to phase an integrated international information system that fully supports the needs of the United Nations, enables the put togetherive management of adult male, financial and personal resources, an d is based on streamlined sufficees and founder practices (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008).1.2Background of the Study1.2.1 Existing arrangingCurrently, the United Nations uses an in-house developed system crudely referred to as combine Management Information clay (IMIS)for the management of human, financial and physical resources. The development of IMIS was a milestone in the use of information technology as a discipline that crapper benefici tot everyyy affect many, if non all, argonas of governing body and management in any given governance. IMIS was developed as a functionally integrated system, which combines all departments to support key out attend toes such as human resources management, payroll, finance and accounting, requisitioning and funds concur, budget execution and give-up the ghost management. IMIS was introduced in conjunction with desktop, net usageed computing and office automation tools such as electronic mail in many offices.If an transcr iption is not yet sure of the need for client-server networks, the state of the art in enterprise-wide computing, it has only to consider the Integrated Management Information System (IMIS) of the United Nations, (Rowe Davis, 1996, p. 122). The launching of IMIS was subsequently unnatural and conditioned by major developments in the proficient market, and an accelerated shift of centre in the United Nations to world activities. In short, IMIS was designed and developed at a prison term when the context began to convert rapidly and profoundly. Yet, only a a few(prenominal) long time after the performance of IMIS, it has conk evident that the system evokenot take full advantage of the advancement in technology e.g., even though IMIS is functionally integrated, it was deployed and managed locally at to each one geographical location, which micturates reporting and global management very difficult. The execution in the United Nations peacekeeping operation was partial, as it is a separate department in the UN, and was not able to support the supply chain and logistical management (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008).The IMIS was not an alternative communication technology to paper and telephones, but it involved the synchrony of multiple data sources and the data linking of them to several mainframes, (Rowe Davis, 1996, p. 122). An investment in tactical systems, which includes a stand-alone system and a modular integrating into IMIS with interfaces, was able to c argon for the functional gaps of IMIS. However, the validation today faces challenges that demand profound transformation beyond the capabilities of IMIS and its ancillary legacy systems currently being apply (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008).1.2.2 The need for changeThe United Nations struggled to get everybody in their building to connect electronically. It soon realised that it was time to connect the world with a client-server network, (Rowe Davis, 1996, p. 122). The need for the United Nations to take on the foreign Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSAS) lead to the requirement of signifi arseholet change in the accounting handlees and systems in ready to keep abreast with the international public sphere standard for accounting. The requisite changes, indeed, were so fundamental that it is fair to say that the life of IMIS had come to an end after fourteen years moreover, the bene conk outs that the staff and managers evaluate from the information system in day-to-day trading operations and decision-making no longer matched the cost of maintenance and ongoing support. This is because IMIS is no longer able to cope with the fast technical development, and the cost of maintenance and ongoing support has become very expensive (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008).The success of your organisations quality initiative depends upon your ability to transport the need for change by means of fall out the organization, (Arcaro, 1997, p. 146). The United Nations as an organisation needs to better the value and cost- aptitude of the services it provides. They report that the dwelling systems are not up to the standard, not integrated, duplicative, and are ineffectual (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). According to the UN, the effective management, planning and decision-making work been hampered by the lack of integration and complete data on resources (ibid). As the organisation continues to grow in complexness in its activities, they are dissatisfied with the lack of integration and data-sharing between different departments as it has become a bigger enigma, and the need for a bare-ass ICT global enterprise system for streamlining and simplifying processes has become more crucial as the nature of the organisation is changing itself (ibid).1.2.3 Goals and objectives of implementing an Enterprise Resource homework SystemThe United Nations reports that the implementation of an ERP system leave present the opportunity to fully combine resources and functions across the organisation by replacing the existing IMIS system (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). Minahan (1998) reports ERP to be a miscellaneous system that integrates and automates the basic processes of a business such as finance and budget management, human resources management, supply chain management, aboriginal support services, and other incarnate nerve functions. Most importantly, the main value of an ERP system is the opportunity to streamline and improve the operations of an entire organisation through process reengineering, sharing of common data, and implementation of best practices and standards, and come as the inter-organisation information backbone for communication and collaboration (OLeary, 2004).According to reports from the United Nations (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008), the main objectives of the ERP come across can be summarised as followsTo shit a global operating system that precisely captures core resource data from each department and result at the UN dapple linking them unitedly to provide better decision-making. This blockade minimise the time required to perform administrative processes and enable easy regain to incumbent reports for each department, thus change magnitude the efficiency of the organisation and directing the boil down to high priority situations.The main functionalities sought from the new ERP system are pass judgment to encompass functions such as programme planning, budgeting, contributions and performance human resources management and administration payroll, including management of benefits and contribution to pension, medical and insurance schemes supply chain management, including procurement assets and facilities management general accounting, travel and other administrative flows reporting to management and stakeholders, and more (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008, p. 8).Specific United Nations peacekeeping operations functions such as logistics, transportation, furnish and rations systems need to be back up by the new ERP system, as these functions are not held in common with other organisations of the United Nations operations.1.3Purpose and Significance of the StudyThe investigate do in this study will attempt to answer the following skepticism What will be the impact of ERP implementation on the business transformation and business grow of the United Nations? Specifically, this study will attempt to establish the relationship between the business process transformation and organisational culture change commotioned as the result of ERP.These questions and findings are expected to provide an extendd ability in evaluating the performance and standardisation of the business processes within the United Nations, as well as an change magnitude sensitiveness of its effect on the business culture and productiveness over time in the UN.In addition, answers to these questions will subsequently enable other researchers to gain more perspicacity into ERP implementation and business process reengineering. It will also enable the management of the United Nations to see how ERP can be a better means of technological reform, thus providing the opportunity to re-evaluate the existing business processes.1.4 Research QuestionsThe question that constitutes the primary point of pivot for the paper is What will be the probable future impact of ERP on the business process transformation and business culture of the UnitedNations?The three subsidiary questions of the present work are How will ERP implementation polish off the organisation better off in the foreseeable future? What will be the effect on the reformed business culture in terms of productivity? How does the organisation perceive the benefit of ERP on the standardisation of business processes?1.5Structural ApproachThe rest of the dissertation has been structured as follows. Chapter 2 provides a review of pertinent litera ture including ERP, business process reengineering, and their impact on organisational culture. Chapter 3 discusses the methodologies used for the case study and describes the data and the various proxies industrious for analysing ERP implementation in the United Nations. Chapter 4 provides empirical findings on the relationship between ERP implementation and its effects on business processes and organisational culture. Chapter 5 tumbles the research findings. Chapter 6 concludes the research by pointing out the key impacts of ERP on the UN. Chapter 7 stags various recommendations for policy direction and potentially fruitful areas of ERP systems for further research. Chapter 8 reflects on the study as a whole.CHAPTER II2.0 LITERATURE REVIEWThe following Literature Review will localize on four main areas of evaluation regarding enterprise resource planning (ERP) on the business process transformation (BPR) in organisations, and more specifically, the United Nations. These are1. E RP definition, evolution, implications2. BPR definition, evolution, implications3. ERP and organisational culture4. BPR and organisational changeThis review will analyse the abovementioned systems and associate processes insofar as the available data in the literature will allow for a comparison of ERP and BPR and their effects on the United Nations and other large organisations.2.1 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Definition, Evolution, and ImplicationsEnterprise resource planning (ERP) systems are commonly described as commercial software packages that allow the soaking up of data and processes throughout an organisation (Markus Tanis, 2000, cited in Kim et al. 2005). ERP enables the flow of information among all business areas such as finance, human resources, manufacturing, sales and marketing, (Tan Theodorou, 2009, p. 52). Basically, it allows data from all departments to exist in one calculating machine system (Pang, 2001), making the managerial dream of unification of all information systems into one computer system come square (Adam ODoherty, 2003, cited in Revia, 2007). This unification should offer many benefits to the UN and other large organisations. Large organisations may set out a more difficult time relaying information from one sector to another as they have many different departments and even multiple locations. The combination of all departments in one system, presents benefits of relaying data in a timely manner. alternatively than direct files through inter-office mail or needing to track down one particular staff member, each employee will have regain to the information required for their line of descent by s point logging into the system. The researcher will attempt to discover whether this unification does indeed allow for more time-efficiency as well as making simple operations tasks easier to accomplish in the UN.The start of ERP systems came about in the 1960-1970s with the invention of Inventory Control (IC) and Mate rials Requirement Planning (MPR) systems, which managed inventory in manufacturing. In the 1980s, Manufacturing Resources Planning (MRP II) systems came into use to manage both inventory and production requirements together. In 1973, the first ERP system was created with the goal of supporting all business needs. Since then, ERP systems have become much more popular. In fact, by the year 2000, enterprise resource planning systems were estimated to have serviced $23 billion USD in profits for the various organisations that have been implementing them (Pang, 2001). ERP systems are larger, more influential and faster growing than any other systems in the industry (Finney Corbett, 2007). This is probably why the UN has shown such interest in ERP.The subjoin in ERP implementation does not seem surprising as ERP allows corporations to update to a new integrated system crude out the previous legacy systems known for their difficulties in maintenance, large size, and old age, as they are segregated systems (Martin, 1998 cited in Boudreau, 1999). This appears to be helpful for the UN as they report difficulty with their current legacy system (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). It is likely that employees of the UN will be satisfied with the replacement of the legacy system due to the reported problems it has. However, thither is a chance that employees may be intimidated by this change as they will have to learn an entirely new system.Advantages of ERP systems for organisations include overcoming fragmentation by streamlining activities and processes, which provides direct access to real time information by supplying a group of software modules that encase all departments of a business (Koch, 2003, cited in Finney Corbett, 2007). This implies that all information accessed through the new system will be current as it is constantly being updated by various employees based on the tasks they complete. Rather than in that respect being pieces of information in var ious places, all information regarding the same issue will be together implying that employees can look in one place and have all the information they need rather than searching through various documents or consulting multiple co- proles. However, it provokes the question as to how employees can be sure the information entered is accurate. This aspect of ERP systems will be investigated at the UNDP in Kosovo in sanctify to determine whether this feature is beneficial.Furthermore, ERP systems are said to provide cost-reduction in addition to increased flexibility (Siriginidi, 2000 cited in Al-Fawaz et al. 2008). Since the initial be of implementation are so high, it doesnt seem like cost-reduction can be achieved anytime compressed to implementation. However, Rowe and Davis (1996) reported, the IMIS system which is the current system being used in many UN agencies does not cut down the amount of paper necessitate in order to do processes. Switching to an ERP system should reduc e cost related to this amongst other things, as suggested by the literature. For the UN, this would mean more money to use for their peacekeeping missions or other operations. The reduction of costs and flexibility appear to be linked in around flair as decrease operation costs would imply having more flexibility to perform other processes. Then again, its possible for the availability of data to imply flexibility in making decisions, or flexibility could result from rearranging the organisations processes and being better supply to perform certain tasks.ERP systems have been reported to enhance business performance by accelerating the merger of organisational resources as well as strengthening the useable efficiency of the beau monde through minimising human error (Shin Knapp, 2001, cited in Wang, 2006). The implication that ERP reduces human error seems to be correct as there is little opportunity to make a mistake for employees because there is generally only one time the y need to input information for data-sharing as distant to the multiple steps needed to take before but how can employees be sure that the initial information entered was accurate? One may show that if multiple peck are doing the same step there is increased accuracy as there are that many more people assessing the situation. aside from that, it seems these benefits should assist the UN in accomplishing some of their proposed goals, such as linking all departments within one operations system, which decreases the time required for administrative processes. The UN hopes implementation will increase their operational efficiency by allowing valuable time to be spent focusing on high priority situations rather than simple operations tasks (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008).to a greater extent advertised benefits include ameliorate information accuracy and decision-making capacity (Siriginidi, 2000 cited in Al-Fawaz et al. 2008). The UN wants to make use of these proposed adva ntages (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). Decision-making is a large part of the UN as they have to make difficult decisions everyday that effect large numbers of people making a bad decision is not necessarily easily corrected in this case. Furthermore, many situations the UN call fors with are time-sensitive if its easier to access data, and the accuracy of that data is improved, officials can rest assured that they are making decisions with proper knowledge.In implementing ERP, organisations no longer have to create their own applications that are then unique to their ships company. They now have standard software available for their business processes, referred to as Best Business Practices (BBPs), which came into being around the same time as ERPs. BBPs are general guidelines to assist companies in the way of handling certain business processes, meaning that each company can now improve itself on the basis of the experience of other corporations that share similar func tional processes (SAP, 2007, cited in Revia, 2007). It seems any organisation would be indecisive to implement a system that has not proved to benefit other large organisations as the risk of failure is not unlikely (Moon, 2007). However, each organisation is unique so BBPs may not work for every organisation..Some of the disadvantages of ERP are that the implementation requires time, costs and risks (Boudreau, 1999), as they tend to be large, complicated, and expensive (Mabert et al. 2001, cited in Al-Fawaz et al. 2008, p. 3). ERP implementation calls for serious time dedication from all involved as it is often the biggest project that an organisation will ever face (Moon, 2007). ERP execution requires new procedures, employee fosterage and managerial and technical support (Shang Seddon, 2002, cited in Al-Fawaz et al. 2008), which can be accomplished through good communication of the corporate strategy to all employees (Umble et al. 2003, cited in Al-Fawaz et al. 2008). Consequ ently, the biggest problem is not actually the implementation itself but the expectations of board members and senior staff as well as not having a clear plan or realistic projections (Somers Nelson 2004, cited in Al-Fawaz et al. 2008). However, the UN has already proposed clear goals and plans for their implementation. The question is whether or not they will be able to luckyly translate these goals/plans to all employees of the organisation and whether or not they will be successful.Finally, the importance of selecting the appropriate ERP package is stressed. Corporations must make sure they select the appropriate ERP package that will match their organisation as well as its business processes (Chen, 2001, cited in Finney Corbett, 2007). This seems obvious as every organisation is different. Some corporations strategise around providing excellent client service part others focus on decreasing costs to customers as a way to attract more business. However, there are studies that show that customising ERP packages beyond minimal adjustments is reject these studies show that organisations should adjust their processes to fit the package rather than adjust the package to fit the processes (Murray Coffin, 2001 cited in Al-Fawaz et al. 2008).2.2 Business Process Transformation (BPR) Definition, Evolution, and ImplicationsBusiness process reengineering (BPR) was not very popular until the force out of the book Re-engineering the Corporation by Michael Hammer and James Champy (Barker, 1995). Hammer and Champy introduced the term Business process reengineering in 1990 and defined it as a fundamental rethinking and radix redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in critical, contemporary measures of performance, such as cost, quality, service and speed (Grover Kettinger, 2000, p. 151). Business process reengineering is also defined as a strategic redesign of important business processes, including the systems and policies that support the m, in order to achieve maximum productivity of an organisation (Manganelli Klein, 1994). This would suggest a link between ERP and BPR as they are both structured around the redesign of core business processes. In fact, some goals of BPR are the reduction of cost, cycle-time, defects, and the increase of worker productivity (Hales Savoie, 1994), very much the same as ERP. The aim of BPR is to change current business processes in order to make them more efficient overall, again mimicking ERP. In fact, Some researchers suggest that ERP systems are the major tools for making business processes better, leaner and faster through associated business process reengineering, (Shang Seddon, 2003, cited in Revia, 2007, p. 25).It is not yet known whether or not BPR will be performed at the UN. It is assumed that it will as it is so closely related to ERP. Additionally, reports have shown that ERP often causes BPR to guide due to its very nature (Seebacher Juszczyk, 2002). It seems that in order for ERP to be most successful, BPR should be performed (Sumner, 2000 cited in Law Ngai, 2007), otherwise the UN may not recognise hardly which processes are most important for their operations. Or, they may not be fully aware of the exact way in which ERP should be performed in relation to the core business processes, which is vital to understand for the selection of the proper ERP package.BPR has its origins in the private sectors as a management tool for companies to deal with change and reorganise their work to improve customer service, cut operational costs, and become world-class competitors, (Hamid, 2004, cited in Wang, 2006, p. 5). Generally, business process transformation takes business processes and allows them to be through routinely through a computer system. It incorporates peoples perspectives and input to make sure that the processes fit needs specific to each corporation (Wang, 2006). This suggests benefits for ERP implementation in any organisation as the sy stems are supposed to be designed around core processes specific to each company. It would be helpful for the UN to determine which processes are vital to their operations. Furthermore, cutting operational costs should prove to be very valuable for the UN as many of the services it provides are non-profit. Of course, whether or not this will be achieved is a question of interest.Here is a further look into what a core business process is A core business process is one that gives value to the customers or stakeholders of the company. These are the most important processes within the organisation and are the ones that will set a company above their competitors if done well. In order to discover out what processes are core, one may ask the following questions.1) Does the process make valued contributions to the customer? Does it improve customer service, increase response-time, decrease customers costs?2) Is it important for the production/operation of the company?3) Can it be used fo r other businesses?If the answer is yes to one of these questions, then the process under consideration can be considered core (McHugh et al. 1995). The UN may consider any process involving cash flow to be core as that is a huge component to many of the services they provide. Furthermore, any documentation of information from one department to another is probably considered core as this organisation relies on data-sharing for its decision-making capabilities. Therefore, it seems that these types of processes will be affected by ERP implementation and will most likely be reengineered.The three most basic strategies that increase a business success are large(p) prices, religious offering more value in products, or focusing on less diversity in commodities and specialising in a certain area (Berrington Oblich, 1995). This suggests that BPR would be structured around these strategies when reorganising core business processes. If the UN is restructuring using BPR, they are likely to focus on a combination of strategies. As already mentioned, the cost of operations is a huge factor for the United Nations to consider as they provide aid to many countries without expecting any favours in return. This implies they would focus on reduction of costs. However, the main reason they are an organisation is to provide services to those in need. That would suggest they would reorganise their business processes around the strategy of offering more value in their services.In implementing BPR, organisations are asked to choose five or six of the processes that are central to the operation of the company and focus on those to see the ways in which they can make them more efficient (McHugh et al. 1995). Concentrating on making sure core processes are completed to the best of the companys ability only ensures the organisation will do better. In the case of the UN, focusing on data-sharing and managing cash flow suggests an increase in the organisations efficiency as those compon ents are vital to their operation. These changes would suggest benefits for both the cost-reduction strategy as well as providing better service to customers.2.3 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Organisational CultureOrganisational culture is a set of core beliefs, values, and behaviours divided by all members of one company, thereby affecting the productivity of the business. It is often described as a pattern of divided up assumptions produced and manipulated by top management (Schein, 1992 cited in Boersma Kingma, 2005, p. 131). Organisational culture is influenced through many aspects, including leadership, personal characteristics, interactions of members, as well as tradition. Culture has visible signs and hidden insinuations. conspicuous signs include behaviour while the hidden insinuations entail morals and beliefs (Rousseau, 1990 cited in Cooper, 1994). The culture of an organisation is even displayed in the way certain processes are done as well as the outcomes of these processes, which will be examined at the UNDP in Kosovo. Because ERP systems involve most departments in a company, they change many business processes and thereby affect the more constituted organisational culture of a corporation.Companies that focus on incorporating their cultures into organisational efforts are said to have an edge in accordance with their productivity. Organisations can focus on culture and work with the people to shape new values, morals and work ethics. If employees are happy to be working for the organisation, they will be more apt to want to work, implying there will be an increase in productivity (Farbrother Marc, 2003). Enterprise resource planning can lead to changes in organisational culture e.g., ERP is implemented in order to increase productivity by changing current business processes (Deal Kennedy, 1982 cited in Cooper, 1994). These changes are maximal and cannot be simply napped aside. When a company implements ERP, if the organisational culture is ready for the changes it will amaze, the employees can work with the system to increase productivity. Consequently, the culture within the business must be one that can be make amenable for change (Nah et al. 2001 cited in Finney Corbett, 2007). There is the belief that positive and supportive attitudes of those embarking on implementation of ERP will actually bring about a successful transition (Chatterjee et al. 2002 cited in Law Ngai, 2007). However, if the culture has not been made ready for change or the employees are unwilling to change, the system will be less likely to succeed. A system cannot work if there are no users.System implementation represents a threat to users perceptions of control over their work and a period of transition during which users must cope with differences between old and new work systems, (Sternad Bobek, 2006, p. 285). The social setting of a company and its technology most by all odds shape each other they are hardly independent of o ne another (Boersma Kingma, 2005). A mistake companies frequently make is to presume that people can change their habits easily when in actuality such changes are considerably taxing for many people. These companies underestimate the effect ERP implementation will have on their employees. many an(prenominal) employees panic when nothing looks the way it used to, nothing works the way it used to, and they can no longer go through their workday with the antecedently earned sense of familiarity and assurance (Koch, 2007 cited in Revia, 2007). One study showed that it took over two years for users of the new system to forget the process problems they found ab initio and to gain new knowledge of the system (Seddon Shang, 2003 cited in Revia, 2007). A Chief Information Officer from Nestle sums up this concept very wellshe says, No major software implementation is really about the software. Its about change managementYou are changing the way people workYou are challenging their princip les, their beliefs and the way they have done things for many, many years (Boersma Kingma, 2005, p. 123).It seems the best way to ensure that employees are on board with proposed changes is to make them aware of these changes. It is important for them to feel that they are included in the decision to create new values and procedures for the company. Otherwise, they will be clinging to the old culture and ways of doing things. The change will be disagreeable and forced rather than welcomed with ease. They should feel that the change is happImpacts of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)Impacts of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)1.0 IntroductionThis paper will labour to explicate the intricacies of enterprise resource planning (ERP), a concept that has long fascinated many in both academic and professional work environments, including the United Nations (UN). In fact, the UN has expressed the need to implement ERP. As part of their examination into this procedure, the UN has impleme nted ERP at the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in Pristine, Republic of Kosovo, and other agencies of the UN. As they look into the ramifications of ERP implementation, so does this case study. This study attempts to make predictions of the impact of ERP implementation on the business processes and organisational culture of the United Nations secretariat based on results from the UNDP.1.1 Introduction to the ProblemSince the late 1990s, businesses have flocked to implement enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, e.g., one study showed that more than sixty percent of Fortune 500 companies had adopted an ERP system (Stewart et al. 2000). The United Nations, as one of the largest organisations in the world, has lagged behind in adopting the transformation in the management of its resources.The United Nations has been seriously hampered in its ability to deliver results effectively and efficiently due to the lack of an integrated information system for managing its resour ces (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). According to Davis and Olsen (1985), ERP is an integrated system that provides information to support operation management and decision-making functions in an organisation. Therefore, the goal of implementing an ERP system is to build an integrated global information system that fully supports the needs of the United Nations, enables the effective management of human, financial and physical resources, and is based on streamlined processes and better practices (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008).1.2Background of the Study1.2.1 Existing SystemCurrently, the United Nations uses an in-house developed systemcommonly referred to as Integrated Management Information System (IMIS)for the management of human, financial and physical resources. The development of IMIS was a milestone in the use of information technology as a discipline that can beneficially affect many, if not all, areas of administration and management in any given organisation . IMIS was developed as a functionally integrated system, which combines all departments to support key processes such as human resources management, payroll, finance and accounting, requisitioning and funds control, budget execution and travel management. IMIS was introduced in conjunction with desktop, networked computing and office automation tools such as electronic mail in many offices.If an organisation is not yet sure of the need for client-server networks, the state of the art in enterprise-wide computing, it has only to consider the Integrated Management Information System (IMIS) of the United Nations, (Rowe Davis, 1996, p. 122). The launching of IMIS was subsequently affected and conditioned by major developments in the technological market, and an accelerated shift of focus in the United Nations to field activities. In short, IMIS was designed and developed at a time when the context began to change rapidly and profoundly. Yet, only a few years after the implementation o f IMIS, it has become evident that the system cannot take full advantage of the advancement in technology e.g., even though IMIS is functionally integrated, it was deployed and managed locally at each geographical location, which makes reporting and global management very difficult. The implementation in the United Nations peacekeeping operation was partial, as it is a separate department in the UN, and was not able to support the supply chain and logistical management (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008).The IMIS was not an alternative communication technology to paper and telephones, but it involved the synchronization of multiple data sources and the linking of them to several mainframes, (Rowe Davis, 1996, p. 122). An investment in tactical systems, which includes a stand-alone system and a modular integration into IMIS through interfaces, was able to address the functional gaps of IMIS. However, the organisation today faces challenges that demand profound transformation bey ond the capabilities of IMIS and its ancillary legacy systems currently being used (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008).1.2.2 The need for changeThe United Nations struggled to get everybody in their building to connect electronically. It soon realised that it was time to connect the world with a client-server network, (Rowe Davis, 1996, p. 122). The need for the United Nations to take on the International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSAS) lead to the requirement of significant change in the accounting processes and systems in order to comply with the international public sector standard for accounting. The requisite changes, indeed, were so fundamental that it is fair to say that the life of IMIS had come to an end after fourteen years moreover, the benefits that the staff and managers expected from the information system in day-to-day operations and decision-making no longer matched the cost of maintenance and ongoing support. This is because IMIS is no longer able to cope with the fast technological development, and the cost of maintenance and ongoing support has become very expensive (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008).The success of your organisations quality initiative depends upon your ability to communicate the need for change throughout the organization, (Arcaro, 1997, p. 146). The United Nations as an organisation needs to improve the value and cost-efficiency of the services it provides. They report that the existing systems are not up to the standard, not integrated, duplicative, and are inefficient (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). According to the UN, the effective management, planning and decision-making have been hampered by the lack of integration and complete data on resources (ibid). As the organisation continues to grow in complexity in its activities, they are dissatisfied with the lack of integration and data-sharing between different departments as it has become a bigger problem, and the need for a new ICT global enterprise system for streamlining and simplifying processes has become more crucial as the nature of the organisation is changing itself (ibid).1.2.3 Goals and objectives of implementing an Enterprise Resource Planning SystemThe United Nations reports that the implementation of an ERP system will present the opportunity to fully combine resources and functions across the organisation by replacing the existing IMIS system (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). Minahan (1998) reports ERP to be a multifaceted system that integrates and automates the basic processes of a business such as finance and budget management, human resources management, supply chain management, central support services, and other corporate core functions. Most importantly, the main value of an ERP system is the opportunity to streamline and improve the operations of an entire organisation through process reengineering, sharing of common data, and implementation of best practices and standards, and perform as the inter-organisation information backbone for communication and collaboration (OLeary, 2004).According to reports from the United Nations (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008), the main objectives of the ERP project can be summarised as followsTo have a global operating system that precisely captures core resource data from each department and agency at the UN while linking them together to provide better decision-making. This will minimise the time required to perform administrative processes and enable easy access to necessary reports for each department, thus increasing the efficiency of the organisation and directing the focus to high priority situations.The main functionalities sought from the new ERP system are expected to encompass functions such as programme planning, budgeting, contributions and performance human resources management and administration payroll, including management of benefits and contribution to pension, medical and insurance schemes supply chain mana gement, including procurement assets and facilities management general accounting, travel and other administrative flows reporting to management and stakeholders, and more (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008, p. 8).Specific United Nations peacekeeping operations functions such as logistics, transportation, fuel and rations systems need to be supported by the new ERP system, as these functions are not held in common with other organisations of the United Nations operations.1.3Purpose and Significance of the StudyThe research done in this study will attempt to answer the following question What will be the impact of ERP implementation on the business transformation and business culture of the United Nations? Specifically, this study will attempt to establish the relationship between the business process transformation and organisational culture change offered as the result of ERP.These questions and findings are expected to provide an increased ability in evaluating the performance and standardisation of the business processes within the United Nations, as well as an increased awareness of its effect on the business culture and productivity over time in the UN.In addition, answers to these questions will subsequently enable other researchers to gain more insight into ERP implementation and business process reengineering. It will also enable the management of the United Nations to see how ERP can be a better means of technological reform, thus providing the opportunity to re-evaluate the existing business processes.1.4 Research QuestionsThe question that constitutes the primary point of pivot for the paper is What will be the probable future impact of ERP on the business process transformation and business culture of the UnitedNations?The three subsidiary questions of the present work are How will ERP implementation make the organisation better off in the foreseeable future? What will be the effect on the reformed business culture in terms of productivity? How does the organisation perceive the benefit of ERP on the standardisation of business processes?1.5Structural ApproachThe rest of the dissertation has been structured as follows. Chapter 2 provides a review of relevant literature including ERP, business process reengineering, and their impact on organisational culture. Chapter 3 discusses the methodologies used for the case study and describes the data and the various proxies employed for analysing ERP implementation in the United Nations. Chapter 4 provides empirical findings on the relationship between ERP implementation and its effects on business processes and organisational culture. Chapter 5 analyses the research findings. Chapter 6 concludes the research by pointing out the key impacts of ERP on the UN. Chapter 7 makes various recommendations for policy direction and potentially fruitful areas of ERP systems for further research. Chapter 8 reflects on the study as a whole.CHAPTER II2.0 LITERATURE REVIEWThe following Literatur e Review will focus on four main areas of evaluation regarding enterprise resource planning (ERP) on the business process transformation (BPR) in organisations, and more specifically, the United Nations. These are1. ERP definition, evolution, implications2. BPR definition, evolution, implications3. ERP and organisational culture4. BPR and organisational changeThis review will analyse the abovementioned systems and related processes insofar as the available data in the literature will allow for a comparison of ERP and BPR and their effects on the United Nations and other large organisations.2.1 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Definition, Evolution, and ImplicationsEnterprise resource planning (ERP) systems are commonly described as commercial software packages that allow the assimilation of data and processes throughout an organisation (Markus Tanis, 2000, cited in Kim et al. 2005). ERP enables the flow of information among all business areas such as finance, human resources, man ufacturing, sales and marketing, (Tan Theodorou, 2009, p. 52). Basically, it allows data from all departments to exist in one computer system (Pang, 2001), making the managerial dream of unification of all information systems into one computer system come true (Adam ODoherty, 2003, cited in Revia, 2007). This unification should offer many benefits to the UN and other large organisations. Large organisations may have a more difficult time relaying information from one sector to another as they have many different departments and even multiple locations. The combination of all departments in one system, presents benefits of relaying data in a timely manner. Rather than sending files through inter-office mail or needing to track down one particular staff member, each employee will have access to the information required for their job by simply logging into the system. The researcher will attempt to discover whether this unification does indeed allow for more time-efficiency as well a s making simple operations tasks easier to accomplish in the UN.The start of ERP systems came about in the 1960-1970s with the invention of Inventory Control (IC) and Materials Requirement Planning (MPR) systems, which managed inventory in manufacturing. In the 1980s, Manufacturing Resources Planning (MRP II) systems came into use to manage both inventory and production requirements together. In 1973, the first ERP system was created with the goal of supporting all business needs. Since then, ERP systems have become much more popular. In fact, by the year 2000, enterprise resource planning systems were estimated to have serviced $23 billion USD in profits for the various organisations that have been implementing them (Pang, 2001). ERP systems are larger, more influential and faster growing than any other systems in the industry (Finney Corbett, 2007). This is probably why the UN has shown such interest in ERP.The increase in ERP implementation does not seem surprising as ERP allows corporations to update to a new integrated system cutting out the previous legacy systems known for their difficulties in maintenance, large size, and old age, as they are segregated systems (Martin, 1998 cited in Boudreau, 1999). This appears to be helpful for the UN as they reported difficulty with their current legacy system (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). It is likely that employees of the UN will be satisfied with the replacement of the legacy system due to the reported problems it has. However, there is a chance that employees may be intimidated by this change as they will have to learn an entirely new system.Advantages of ERP systems for organisations include overcoming fragmentation by streamlining activities and processes, which provides direct access to real-time information by supplying a group of software modules that encase all departments of a business (Koch, 2003, cited in Finney Corbett, 2007). This implies that all information accessed through the new sys tem will be current as it is constantly being updated by various employees based on the tasks they complete. Rather than there being pieces of information in various places, all information regarding the same issue will be together implying that employees can look in one place and have all the information they need rather than searching through various documents or consulting multiple co-workers. However, it provokes the question as to how employees can be sure the information entered is accurate. This aspect of ERP systems will be investigated at the UNDP in Kosovo in order to determine whether this feature is beneficial.Furthermore, ERP systems are said to provide cost-reduction in addition to increased flexibility (Siriginidi, 2000 cited in Al-Fawaz et al. 2008). Since the initial costs of implementation are so high, it doesnt seem like cost-reduction can be achieved anytime close to implementation. However, Rowe and Davis (1996) reported, the IMIS system which is the current sy stem being used in many UN agencies does not cut down the amount of paper needed in order to do processes. Switching to an ERP system should reduce costs related to this amongst other things, as suggested by the literature. For the UN, this would mean more money to use for their peacekeeping missions or other operations. The reduction of costs and flexibility appear to be linked in some way as decreasing operation costs would imply having more flexibility to perform other processes. Then again, its possible for the availability of data to imply flexibility in making decisions, or flexibility could result from rearranging the organisations processes and being better equipped to perform certain tasks.ERP systems have been reported to enhance business performance by accelerating the merger of organisational resources as well as strengthening the operational efficiency of the company through minimising human error (Shin Knapp, 2001, cited in Wang, 2006). The implication that ERP reduc es human error seems to be correct as there is less opportunity to make a mistake for employees because there is generally only one time they need to input information for data-sharing as opposed to the multiple steps needed to take before but how can employees be sure that the initial information entered was accurate? One may argue that if multiple people are doing the same step there is increased accuracy as there are that many more people assessing the situation. Aside from that, it seems these benefits should assist the UN in accomplishing some of their proposed goals, such as linking all departments within one operations system, which decreases the time required for administrative processes. The UN hopes implementation will increase their operational efficiency by allowing valuable time to be spent focusing on high priority situations rather than simple operations tasks (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008).More advertised benefits include improved information accuracy and d ecision-making capacity (Siriginidi, 2000 cited in Al-Fawaz et al. 2008). The UN wants to make use of these proposed advantages (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). Decision-making is a large part of the UN as they have to make difficult decisions everyday that effect large numbers of people making a bad decision is not necessarily easily corrected in this case. Furthermore, many situations the UN deals with are time-sensitive if its easier to access data, and the accuracy of that data is improved, officials can rest assured that they are making decisions with proper knowledge.In implementing ERP, organisations no longer have to create their own applications that are then unique to their company. They now have standard software available for their business processes, referred to as Best Business Practices (BBPs), which came into existence around the same time as ERPs. BBPs are general guidelines to assist companies in the way of handling certain business processes, meaning that each company can now improve itself on the basis of the experience of other corporations that share similar functional processes (SAP, 2007, cited in Revia, 2007). It seems any organisation would be hesitant to implement a system that has not proved to benefit other large organisations as the risk of failure is not unlikely (Moon, 2007). However, each organisation is unique so BBPs may not work for every organisation..Some of the disadvantages of ERP are that the implementation requires time, costs and risks (Boudreau, 1999), as they tend to be large, complicated, and expensive (Mabert et al. 2001, cited in Al-Fawaz et al. 2008, p. 3). ERP implementation calls for serious time commitment from all involved as it is often the biggest project that an organisation will ever face (Moon, 2007). ERP execution requires new procedures, employee training and managerial and technical support (Shang Seddon, 2002, cited in Al-Fawaz et al. 2008), which can be accomplished through good communicat ion of the corporate strategy to all employees (Umble et al. 2003, cited in Al-Fawaz et al. 2008). Consequently, the biggest problem is not actually the implementation itself but the expectations of board members and senior staff as well as not having a clear plan or realistic projections (Somers Nelson 2004, cited in Al-Fawaz et al. 2008). However, the UN has already proposed clear goals and plans for their implementation. The question is whether or not they will be able to successfully translate these goals/plans to all employees of the organisation and whether or not they will be successful.Finally, the importance of selecting the appropriate ERP package is stressed. Corporations must make sure they select the appropriate ERP package that will match their organisation as well as its business processes (Chen, 2001, cited in Finney Corbett, 2007). This seems obvious as every organisation is different. Some corporations strategise around providing excellent customer service while others focus on decreasing costs to customers as a way to attract more business. However, there are studies that show that customising ERP packages beyond minimal adjustments is discouraged these studies show that organisations should adjust their processes to fit the package rather than adjust the package to fit the processes (Murray Coffin, 2001 cited in Al-Fawaz et al. 2008).2.2 Business Process Transformation (BPR) Definition, Evolution, and ImplicationsBusiness process reengineering (BPR) was not very popular until the release of the book Re-engineering the Corporation by Michael Hammer and James Champy (Barker, 1995). Hammer and Champy introduced the term Business process reengineering in 1990 and defined it as a fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in critical, contemporary measures of performance, such as cost, quality, service and speed (Grover Kettinger, 2000, p. 151). Business process reengineering is also de fined as a strategic redesign of important business processes, including the systems and policies that support them, in order to achieve maximum productivity of an organisation (Manganelli Klein, 1994). This would suggest a link between ERP and BPR as they are both structured around the redesign of core business processes. In fact, some goals of BPR are the reduction of cost, cycle-time, defects, and the increase of worker productivity (Hales Savoie, 1994), very much the same as ERP. The aim of BPR is to change current business processes in order to make them more efficient overall, again mimicking ERP. In fact, Some researchers suggest that ERP systems are the major tools for making business processes better, leaner and faster through associated business process reengineering, (Shang Seddon, 2003, cited in Revia, 2007, p. 25).It is not yet known whether or not BPR will be performed at the UN. It is assumed that it will as it is so closely related to ERP. Additionally, reports ha ve shown that ERP often causes BPR to occur due to its very nature (Seebacher Juszczyk, 2002). It seems that in order for ERP to be most successful, BPR should be performed (Sumner, 2000 cited in Law Ngai, 2007), otherwise the UN may not recognise exactly which processes are most important for their operations. Or, they may not be fully aware of the exact way in which ERP should be performed in relation to the core business processes, which is vital to understand for the selection of the proper ERP package.BPR has its origins in the private sectors as a management tool for companies to deal with change and reorganise their work to improve customer service, cut operational costs, and become world-class competitors, (Hamid, 2004, cited in Wang, 2006, p. 5). Generally, business process transformation takes business processes and allows them to be done routinely through a computer system. It incorporates peoples perspectives and input to make sure that the processes fit needs specific to each corporation (Wang, 2006). This suggests benefits for ERP implementation in any organisation as the systems are supposed to be designed around core processes specific to each company. It would be helpful for the UN to determine which processes are vital to their operations. Furthermore, cutting operational costs should prove to be very valuable for the UN as many of the services it provides are non-profit. Of course, whether or not this will be achieved is a question of interest.Here is a further look into what a core business process is A core business process is one that gives value to the customers or stakeholders of the company. These are the most important processes within the organisation and are the ones that will set a company above their competitors if done well. In order to figure out what processes are core, one may ask the following questions.1) Does the process make valued contributions to the customer? Does it improve customer service, increase response-time, d ecrease customers costs?2) Is it important for the production/operation of the company?3) Can it be used for other businesses?If the answer is yes to one of these questions, then the process under consideration can be considered core (McHugh et al. 1995). The UN may consider any process involving cash flow to be core as that is a huge component to many of the services they provide. Furthermore, any documentation of information from one department to another is probably considered core as this organisation relies on data-sharing for its decision-making capabilities. Therefore, it seems that these types of processes will be affected by ERP implementation and will most likely be reengineered.The three most basic strategies that increase a business success are lowering prices, offering more value in products, or focusing on less diversity in commodities and specialising in a certain area (Berrington Oblich, 1995). This suggests that BPR would be structured around these strategies when reorganising core business processes. If the UN is restructuring using BPR, they are likely to focus on a combination of strategies. As already mentioned, the cost of operations is a huge factor for the United Nations to consider as they provide aid to many countries without expecting any favours in return. This implies they would focus on reduction of costs. However, the main reason they are an organisation is to provide services to those in need. That would suggest they would reorganise their business processes around the strategy of offering more value in their services.In implementing BPR, organisations are asked to choose five or six of the processes that are central to the operation of the company and focus on those to see the ways in which they can make them more efficient (McHugh et al. 1995). Concentrating on making sure core processes are completed to the best of the companys ability only ensures the organisation will do better. In the case of the UN, focusing on data-shar ing and managing cash flow suggests an increase in the organisations efficiency as those components are vital to their operation. These changes would suggest benefits for both the cost-reduction strategy as well as providing better service to customers.2.3 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Organisational CultureOrganisational culture is a set of core beliefs, values, and behaviours shared by all members of one company, thereby affecting the productivity of the business. It is often described as a pattern of shared assumptions produced and manipulated by top management (Schein, 1992 cited in Boersma Kingma, 2005, p. 131). Organisational culture is influenced through many aspects, including leadership, personal characteristics, interactions of members, as well as tradition. Culture has visible signs and hidden insinuations. Visible signs include behaviour while the hidden insinuations entail morals and beliefs (Rousseau, 1990 cited in Cooper, 1994). The culture of an organisatio n is even displayed in the way certain processes are done as well as the outcomes of these processes, which will be examined at the UNDP in Kosovo. Because ERP systems involve most departments in a company, they change many business processes and thereby affect the more deep-seated organisational culture of a corporation.Companies that focus on incorporating their cultures into organisational efforts are said to have an edge in accordance with their productivity. Organisations can focus on culture and work with the people to shape new values, morals and work ethics. If employees are happy to be working for the organisation, they will be more apt to want to work, implying there will be an increase in productivity (Farbrother Marc, 2003). Enterprise resource planning can lead to changes in organisational culture e.g., ERP is implemented in order to increase productivity by changing current business processes (Deal Kennedy, 1982 cited in Cooper, 1994). These changes are maximal and c annot be simply brushed aside. When a company implements ERP, if the organisational culture is ready for the changes it will bring, the employees can work with the system to increase productivity. Consequently, the culture within the business must be one that can be made amenable for change (Nah et al. 2001 cited in Finney Corbett, 2007). There is the belief that positive and supportive attitudes of those embarking on implementation of ERP will actually bring about a successful transition (Chatterjee et al. 2002 cited in Law Ngai, 2007). However, if the culture has not been made ready for change or the employees are unwilling to change, the system will be less likely to succeed. A system cannot work if there are no users.System implementation represents a threat to users perceptions of control over their work and a period of transition during which users must cope with differences between old and new work systems, (Sternad Bobek, 2006, p. 285). The social setting of a company and its technology most definitely shape each other they are hardly independent of one another (Boersma Kingma, 2005). A mistake companies frequently make is to presume that people can change their habits easily when in actuality such changes are considerably taxing for many people. These companies underestimate the effect ERP implementation will have on their employees. Many employees panic when nothing looks the way it used to, nothing works the way it used to, and they can no longer go through their workday with the previously earned sense of familiarity and assurance (Koch, 2007 cited in Revia, 2007). One study showed that it took over two years for users of the new system to forget the process problems they found initially and to gain new knowledge of the system (Seddon Shang, 2003 cited in Revia, 2007). A Chief Information Officer from Nestle sums up this concept very wellshe says, No major software implementation is really about the software. Its about change managementYou are changing the way people workYou are challenging their principles, their beliefs and the way they have done things for many, many years (Boersma Kingma, 2005, p. 123).It seems the best way to ensure that employees are on board with proposed changes is to make them aware of these changes. It is important for them to feel that they are included in the decision to create new values and procedures for the company. Otherwise, they will be clinging to the old culture and ways of doing things. The change will be stressful and forced rather than welcomed with ease. They should feel that the change is happ

Freuds Consideration Of Masochism English Literature Essay

Freuds Consideration Of Masochism English Literature EssayFreuds first detailed consideration of masochism appears in his handling of windual per recitations in trine Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. At this early date, Freud writes that sadism and masochism are inverse processs of a single sexual perversion centring on throe as an avenue to pleasure.1Sadism and masochism, at this point in Freuds theoretical understanding are inextricably bound the molder being the active, externally order version of the perversion the latter being its resistless, internally focused form. In fact, it is passivity that defines masochism, not a swear for perturb, humiliation or punishment.The term masochism comprises any passive attitude towards sexual life and the sexual object, the extreme instance of which appears to be that in which satisfaction is disciplineal upon suffering physical or mental pain at the hands of the sexual object.2Freud considers sadism and masochism to be the nea r common and most significant of all perversions.3Although he fails to elaborate the reasons for choosing the second adjective, the choice of the first is most likely related to an understanding of sadism as an exaggeration of the normal aggressive sexual sense in men.4Because there is, on Freuds understanding, an intimate connection betwixt cruelty and the sexual instinct an active or violent attitude toward the sexual object is to be expected it is only where sexual satisfaction is only conditional on the humiliation and maltreatment of the object that the term sadism, as a signifier of perversion of the sexual calculate, is entirely appropriate.5While Freud opines that masochism is further removed(p) from the normal sexual aim than its counter discriminate, the logic of the transformation of a single sexual instinct into an active and passive form means that masochism shares sadisms purported naturalness. Even if sadism, then, is delineated as an extension or exaggeration o f normal impulses and wants most likely because it is more(prenominal) comfortably aligned with a culturally normative understanding of masculineness as active and aggressive it is important to note that masochism, which is an intrinsic part of this pain-related perversion, inevitably shares in the normality afforded sadistic impulses, given the terms of the analysis.The other frisk of masochism from this early exposition that merits tending is Freuds description of the transformation from sadism to masochism. harmonize to Freud, masochism is often nothing more than an extension of sadism turned round upon the subjects own self, which takes the place of the sexual object.6Although Freud identifies the expurgation complex and the subjects sense of guilt as part of the mechanism that effects this transformation from sadism to masochism, masochism is at least partially motivated by some form of libidinal interest in ones own self as a sexual object, i.e., masochism is linked in some way with narcissism.In Instincts and Their Vicissitudes, written a decade after the first edition of Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, Freud explicitly describes the mechanism of transformation from sadism to masochism as being fuelled by narcissistic investing in ones own self.7Freud retains his understanding that sadism and masochism are inextricably bound and turn upon a single axis he continues to describe sadism as cruelty directed toward an other for the purpose of sexual satisfaction and masochism as the swear for cruelty directed toward oneself as a means of sexual satisfaction.8The presence of masochistic desire in sadistic practice complicates the picture of how the instincts mutate and transform.A sadistic child takes no account of whether or not he inflicts pains nor does he intend to do so. But when once the transformation into masochism has taken place, the pains are very well fitted to provide a passive masochistic aim for we realise every reason to bel ieve that sensations of pain, like other unpleasuable sensations, trench upon sexual excitation and produce a pleasurable condition, for the sake of which the subject go forth even willingly experience the unpleasure of pain. When once feeling pains has become a masochistic aim, the sadistic aim of causing pains can grind away also, retrogressively for while these pains are being inflicted on other people, they are enjoyed masochistically by the subject through his identification of himself with the suffering object. The pleasure of pain would thus be an aim which was originally masochistic, but which can only become an instinctual aim in someone who was originally sadistic.9Although Freud will fierceness some of these ideas, his notion that sadistic and masochistic desire hides other forms of desire will continue to develop.In his essay A Child is universe beat out(a) A Contribution to the Study of the Origin of Sexual Perversions, Freud attempts to clarify how masochistic d elusion and practice differ by gender by considering what he characterises as the very common envisage, two for those in analysis and those who are not, of a child is being beaten.10This short phrase is the only description of the fantasy Freud provides as he observes, those who indulge in the fantasy are often quite uncertain as to the identity and number of the victims or perpetrators of the beating, their own relationship to the victims and perpetrators, their localisation of function in the fantasy or even whether the pleasure derived from the fantasy is best described as sadistic or masochistic.11Freud reports that his manlike patients in both fantasy and performance always select a woman to perform the role of chastiser.12In addition, in both performance and fantasy, the male masochists invariably transfer themselves into the part of the woman that is to say, their masochistic attitude coincides with a feminine one.13While the figure of woman appears to play an important r ole in male masochistic fantasy, it is the induce who is central. Freud contends that the fantasy of a woman chastiser is a translation of a prior, now unconscious fantasy of being beaten by the father. This unconscious, now repressed, fantasy get by and accessible only to the analyst-author Freud pees a further disavowal of an even earlier longing to be loved by the father.In the male phantasy the being beaten also stands for being loved (in a genital sense), though this has been debased to a lower level owing to regression. So the original form of the unconscious male phantasy was not the provisional one that we have hitherto given I am being beaten by my father, but rather I am loved by my father. The phantasy has been transformed by the processes with which we are now familiar into the conscious phantasy I am being beaten by my mother. The male childs beating is therefore passive from the very beginning, and is derived from a feminine attitude towards his father. The beati ng-phantasy has its origin in an incestuous attachment to the father.14Freud fails to elaborate on the character of the transfer to the feminine or the features of the attitude that mark it so. Given the distinction he has drawn among an active sadism and a passive masochism, it may be the passive status of the male masochist alone that renders his fantasy/performance feminine. The meaning of passivity is troubled, however, if we remember that the male masochist conjures the fantasy or seeks the sexual encounter. While passivity has come to mean a willingness or desire to be penetrated in certain male transgendered cultural codes, it is unclear whether the transfer to the womans role is meant to imply this, given that the chastiser in the masochistic fantasy is always a woman.The incestuous desire for the father link up the boys and girls beating fantasies. One way to read this common desire is to understand it as a longing to be daddys little girl whether one has a penis or a va gina. On the other hand, this commonality, while marking the boy as feminine, secures the fathers role as the only legitimate object of libidinal connection, even in masochistic fantasies. In other words, even in fantasy structure where it appears the male child is assigning some form of respect or sur rendition some bit of power to the mother/woman, Freud explains that the fantasy, ultimately, when unravelled, is all about the significance and desirability of the father and that this feature of the fantasy is the only one divided up across gender. Although the masochistic fantasy necessarily entails an adoption of a feminine attitude and identity on the part of the male child, this attitude and identity work to reinforce the primacy of the paternal position.Echoing his understanding of the fetish, Freud explains that the conscious masochistic fantasy the translation from love to violence, from father to mother enables the male child to evade homosexuality.In the case of the gir l what was originally a masochistic (passive) situation is transformed into a sadistic one by means of repression, and its sexual quality is nigh effaced. In the case of the boy the situation remains masochistic, and shows a greater resemblance to the original phantasy with its genital significance, since there is a difference of sex between the person beating and the person being beaten. The boy evades his homosexuality by repressing and remodelling his unconscious phantasy and the remarkable thing about his later on conscious phantasy is that it has for its issue a feminine attitude with a homosexual object-choice.15Like the complicated relationship between fetishistic and homoerotic desire, masochistic fantasy and performance has an uncertain and unstable relationship to heterosexual identity. To state it somewhat differently and more pointedly, this supposed evasion is a retention. Moreover, this homoerotically focused retention, despite its instantiation of the boy in a posi tion of femininity and passivity, creates a bond between the boy and the father and makes men, the masculine ideal, the paternal signifier and male-to-male relationships the primary figures of desire and desirability. According to Butler, Freuds constant conjoining of the evasion of homosexuality with an admission of the homoerotic character of heterosexual male identity forecloses the possibility of masculine homoerotic desire. According to Butlers reading of Freud, desire is always represented as heterosexual, where it appears homosexual, the gender of the desiring subject is refigured so that the heterosexual dynamic can be preserved.16This re-signification, on Butlers view, depends less on the character of the desire in question than on cultural prohibitions of homoeroticism.Finally, in The Economic Problem of Masochism, Freud seeks to understand how to square masochistic desire with his understanding of the pleasure principle a basic instinctual impulse. In this essay, Freud di stinguishes three types of masochism feminine, erotogenic and honourable.17Feminine masochism, the most easily observable form, is found in male patients, who, like those considered in A Child is Being Beaten, conjure fantasies or seek sexual activity in which they are gagged, bound, painfully beaten, whipped, in some way maltreated, forced into unconditional obedience, dirtied and debased.18These masochistic fantasies broadly speaking signify, according to Freud, being castrated, or copulated with, or giving birth to a baby.19Erotogenic masochism, which underlies and supports the other forms, is characterised by a libidinal pleasure in pain.20In Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, Freud had rejected the notion that the extreme and exceptional stimuli of painful experiences could carry a sufficient libidinal charge to explain the origin of masochism. In this later essay, Freud turns to the death instinct to find the origin of what he now concedes is a primary masochism, one t hat does not depend on the transformation of a prior sadistic instinct. According to Freud, one task of the libido is to meet the death instinct and render it innocuous It fulfils the task by diverting that instinct to a great extent outwards towards objects in the external world.21When this will to power is sexualised, it becomes sadism proper.22 Part of this instinct, however, remains inside the organism and becomes libidinally bound there. It is in this portion that we have to recognise the original, erotogenic masochism.23Freud admits that analysis can explain neither the precise nature of the interaction between sexual and death instincts nor the precise reasons why the death instinct becomes externalised or internalised. The internalisation of a libidinised death instinct, however, manifests in a desire to be beaten, a fascination with castration and a focus on the fuck and anus as erotogenic zones.24Moral masochism, the third form that Freud considers, is chiefly remarkable for having loosened its connection with what we recognise as sexuality.25All other masochistic sufferings carry with them the condition that they shall emanate from the loved person and shall be endured at his command. This restriction has been dropped in moral masochism. The suffering itself is what matters whether it is decreed by someone who is loved or by someone who is indifferent is of no importance. It may even be caused by impersonal powers or by circumstances the true masochist always turns his cheek, whenever he has a chance at receiving a blow.26As Freuds discussion reveals, however, this desexualisation and depersonalisation is only apparent. Moral masochism is characterised by anxiety stemming from unconscious guilt or severe demarcation in light of moral sensibilities.27According to Freud, the super-ego, the agency that serves as the conscience, comes into being through the introjections into the ego of the first objects of libidinal impulses namely, the two parents. 28The punishing force whose attention the masochistic ego seeks, therefore, has a personal identity. As Freud notes elsewhere, the father is the primary figure so-and-so the super-ego. Along with the retention of a personal identity behind the masochistic relationship to the super-ego, the connection between the masochistic ego and the paternal super-ego also retains a sexual charge.We now know that the wish, which so frequently appears in phantasies, to be beaten by the father stands very close to the other wish, to have a passive (feminine) sexual relation to him. If we insert this explanation into the content of moral masochism, its hidden meaning becomes clear to us. Conscience and morality have arisen through the overcoming, the desexualisation, of the Oedipus complex but through moral masochism morality becomes sexualised once more. Masochism creates a temptation to perform sinful action, which must then be expiated by the reproaches of the sadistic conscience or by chastisem ent from the great agnatic power of Destiny.29In a manner similar to the analysis of the beating fantasy of feminine masochism, this description of the mechanics of moral masochism, while representing masochism as both contrary to the interests and perhaps even threatening to the existence of the subject, functions to aggrandise the site of paternal authority and mark the father as the focus of desire.30Moral masochism, the form among the three that seems most impersonal and non-erotic, turns out, upon analysis, to (also) be about sexual desire for the father. In addition, similar to the way in which the discussion of the beating fantasy introduces homoerotic desire as a feature of heterosexual identity, this description of the homosexualised substratum of conscience and morality complicates the notion of the masochists sexual identity. More interestingly, perhaps, insofar as moral masochism is only an exaggerated form of the normal course of development of the id, the conscience g enerally.This account of the critical potential of masochistic fantasy depends on the ability of much(prenominal) fantasies to emphasise the conditions of lack that are part of male subjectivity, the ability of such fantasies to challenge the dominant fiction that links the penis to the phallus thus rendering the actual father and by implication all men equivalent to the symbolic father. Although Freuds description of the male masochists fantasy and practice emphasises the feminine position that the fantasist adopts (toward the father) inwardly the fantasy and even draws attention to the male masochists fascination with castration, his account also creates a closed circuit of male-to-male desire that underlines the desirability of both the father and the paternal position and strongly intersects the male child who longs to acquire the phallus with the paternal figure who is understood to possess it. Feminine conduct within this fantasy castration, copulation, nativity while p utatively inscribing lack on the male subject also functions to displace the woman from the fantasy space. While undergoing an imaginary experience of castration may be the price of admission to the masochistic scene, in this arena the son becomes the object of the fathers desire, the source of his sexual satisfaction and the bearer of his children. Far from emphasising universal conditions of lack and red facing all subjects, the masochistic fantasy has as much potential to render female subjects irrelevant, reducing the world to fathers and sons by circumscribing desire to male homoerotic negotiations and aggrandising male subjects by marking the father as the ultimate object of virtually all desire.

Journey Motif Essay -- essays research papers

In literature, the Journey is often a metaphor for discovery. The journey motif is used in Coleridges The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. It is also shown in Hawthornes My Kinsman, Major Molineux and Young Goodman Brown. In these stories, each main character changes sometime between the commencement exercise and the end of the story. In addition, religion plays a part in each of these stories. Typically, in journey literature the hero encounters several obstacles that he or she must overcome. In Coleridges The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, the Mariner shows negativity. The Mariners moral vision is so impaired that his comparisons are persistently pessimistic. This pessimism is seen repeatedly in the similes that he uses. He describes life-in-death whose skin is ...

For Whom the Bell Tolls Plot :: essays research papers

For Whom the Bell Tolls SynopsisRobert Jordan is the protagonist of this novel and the plot revolves around him, his conflicts, and his newfound love as I will reveal. Robert Jordan is an American, who lived in Spain for ten years, he is an expert in dynamite, and he is devoted to the Republican cause in the Spanish civil war. A Russian officer, General Golz, send Jordan on a dangerous mission to blow up a key bridge in an offensive coffin nail enemy lines, in the Sierra Mountains. Anselmo an old Spaniard, guides Jordan past enemy lines to see the bridge, which was guarded by fascists on both sides. After that Anselmo takes Jordan to meet the guerilla mob he will be working with on this mission.The leader of the guerilla band is a man named Pablo. Pablo once was a fearedan honorable man that throughout the book his respect diminishes. Pablo is against Jordans mission right from the start because he thinks Jordan is there to get their band out of the mountains. Pablo is important to the plot because he provides a challenge for Jordan that results in the death of Anselmo, Jordans friend.When they get to the guerilla hollow, they sit down to eat and drink wine, then Maria enters, bearing food. Maria is a Spanish girl who was rescued from the fasicistsby the guerilla band when they were on a mission to blow up a train. Jordan notices Maria and is instantaneously attracted to her. Jordan also meets Pilar, Pablos woman, who fights aboard the band. Pilar is a strong woman and her leadership ability is displayed later when she takes over the band. Pilar encourages Jordan to pursue Maria, but she warns him to take care of her, for she has undergone tremendous trauma.Jordan and Anselmo cave in to inspect the bridge. Jordan sketches it and takes notes on the best way to place the explosives. On the way back to the cave the two men discuss war. Anselmo believes it is a sin to exhaust even in war, but he claims he will kill for the cause. Jordan says he is fully pre pared to kill the enemy. When they are not far from the cave they encounter Agustin who was on guard. Agustin warns Jordan to protect his explosives from Pablo.Everybody hushes up when Jordan enters, indicating they had been talking about him.

Hacking :: Essays Papers

HackingComputer Crime Its the weekend, you have nothing to do so you decide to play nearlyon your computer. You turn it on and past start up, you start callingpeople with your modem, connecting to another world, with people just likeyou at a simplyton press away. This is all fine however what happens when youstart getting into other peoples computer files. Then it becomes a crime,but what is a computer crime really, obviously it involves the use of acomputer but what be these crimes. Well they atomic number 18 Hacking, Phreaking, &Software Piracy. To begin I will start with Hacking, what is hacking. Hacking isbasically using your computer to Hack your way into another. They useprograms called scanners which at random dials numbers any generating tonesor carriers are recorded. These numbers are looked at by hackers and thenused again, when the hacker calls up the number and gets on hes presentedwith a logon prompt, this is where the hacking really begins, the hacker tries to bypass this anyway he knows how to and tries to gain access to thesystem. Why do they do it, well lets go to a book and retard Avid youngcomputer hackers in their preteens and teens are frequently involved incomputer crimes that take the form of trespassing, invasion of privacy, orvandalism. Quite practically they are mearly out for a fun and games evening, andthey get entangled in the illegal use of their machines without realizingthe full import of what they are doing, I have a hard time believing thatso lets see what a hacker has to say about what he does Just as theywere enthraled with their pursuit of information, so are we. The thrill ofthe hack is not in breaking the law, its in the pursuit and capture ofknowledge., as you can see the hacker doesnt go out to do destroythings although some do. Its in the pursuit of knowledge. Of course thisis still against the law. But where did all of this start, MIT is wherehacking started the people there would learn and explo re computer systemsall around the world. In the views of professional hacking is like drugs orany other addictive substance, its an addiction for the mind and oncestarted its difficult to stop. This could be true, as hackers know whatthey are doing is wrong and they know odds are they will be caught.

Essay on Yeatsian and Western Influences on Chinua Achebes Things Fall

Yeatsian and Western Influences on Things Fall Apart The Igbo culture is flexible and continuous its laws argon made by men and are not solid and permanent. Change is implicit in oral culture. Igbos have been able to retain their core beliefs and mien systems for 5000 years because of the flexibility and adaptability of their culture. Yeats says things collapse from within before they are overwhelmed by things from without- Umuofias collapse is its loss of faith, and that is also its strength, its refusal to fight. But this self-destruction, this bending of societal codes is what keeps the culture from organism annihilated. One fundamental question that occurs while trying to figure out how Yeats fits into an understanding of this book is whether or not things really do fall apart. From Okonkwos top dog of view they certainly do, but Okonkwos is not the only point of view in the book. Do things fall apart for the rest of the Umuofia tribes, and for the Ibo people, or does their essence pipe down hold, and it is just a center that they never shared with Okonkwo? It is important to look at the construction of the novel and the way it ties in with Yeatsian theory on the rise and fall of civilizations, and on personal tragedy. The Yeatsian vision of Western history is of a world of alternating civilizations, each giving way to iodin another through its inability to contain all human impulses within the enclosed scheme of value and being replaced by all that is overlooked and undervalued(Wright 80). A fundamental principle of Yeats vision is that things must collapse from within before they are overwhelmed from without (Wright 79). The falcon must lose the connection with the falconer before the center begins to l... ...escapeHe wiped his machete on the ground and went away (205). An enduring aspect of the center of the Igbo people is the ability of that center to change and adapt. In an unchanging time, Okonkwos inflexible will guaranteed his success as a clansman of the Igbo, a culture remarkable for its flexibility, but when the culture had to change to prosper, Okonkwo lost his center, and became a truly tragic figure. Works Cited Kartennar, Neil ten. How the Center is Made to Hold in Things Fall Apart. English Studies in Canada. Downsview, Ont. University of Toronto Press. 1975 Simola, Raisa. World Views in Chinua Achebes Works. Frankfurt am important New York. 1995. Wright, Derek. Things Standing Together A Retrospective on Things Fall Apart. Heinemann. Oxford 1990. Chinua Achebe A Celebration. Ed. Holst, Peterson. Rutherford.