Biological oxygen demand (BOD) of water sample analysis Essay

Qualitative data: – Collected sample was very murky – The first end point colour was of a yellow colour, perhaps not light enough – Addition of starch indicator produced a grey-black solution; perhaps did not add enough indicator, however this did not pose as a problem – There was one occasion where I suspected to have added too much sodium thiosulphate, however the second trial indicated that I did not go past the end point too much Calculations To calculate the dissolved oxygen content (mg/dm ³ or ppm), we must first determine the number of mols of thiosulphate from the mean titrated volume of both samples. In this case, we will use sample A. The Winkler method indicates that the relationship between the amount of oxygen and thiosulphate is a four to one ratio. Therefore, we will divide the number of mols of thiosulphate by four to get the number of mols of oxygen. Then we convert this to milligrams per dm ³ first by multiplying by 20 to arrive with the number of mols present in 1dm ³ (because the pond water sample used was 50cm ³). Then we multiply that number by 32 (molecular mass of oxygen) to attain the number of grams of oxygen. Then finally, the number is multiplied by 1000 to be converted into milligrams. The biological oxygen demand (BOD) would therefore be the difference between the DO of sample A and sample B.

Cari’s Story Essay

An infection in Cari’s nasal passage and pharynx can spread to her sinuses because her sinuses open into the nasal cavity and the throat. The cough reflex makes a coughing response to the larynx, pharynx, and the trachea-bronchial tree. Cari’s respiratory system is clearing her lungs the cilia moving the mucus from the lungs and it starts the cough reflex sending mucus to the pharynx therefore you are able to swallow it or spit it out. The structure found in the terminal bronicoles and alveoli that would normally protect Cari’s lungs from infectious pathogens are called macrophages. The mucous in the lungs would raise the resistance in her air way because the small opening, the buildup would cause. Fluid would have some alveoli drown where they could not function and would buildup friction or rubbing. Cari’s compliance would increase because of the loss of volume reduces total lung compliance and cause it to work harder. The fluid would lower her total lun g capacity by not letting the space by not allowing it to be filled with air. The elevation cause her respiratory rate to alter her ventilation by the volume is total volume of air taken in and out each minute. Cari blood gases would show too much oxygen. The symptoms of panting like a dog and my chest hurts are what make me think she is low in oxygen. The oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin is affected by POC 2 and alkaline blood gases are down and the breathing has delivered more oxygen is released from blood and caused more oxygen to be used. The administration of oxygen would help her to breath. The anatomical structures in her respiratory system involved are the lungs and the alveoli. Cari was plagued with a chronic cough due to excessive mucus produced that doesn’t clear. The damaging effects of tobacco smoke because Cari respiratory system to be impaired is nicotine’, nicotine make the bronchioles smaller and decreases.

How Edgar Allan Poe’s Writings Illuminate His Upbringing Essay

My thesis statement is that Edgar Allan Poe’s writings illuminate his upbringing. His writings illuminate his upbringing because his childhood was very hard, full of darkness, and he never experienced love from a parent. Therefore he thought the world was like his life was, dark and dreary. So that is why his stories are always sad, and full of heartbreak. The writings by Edgar Alan Poe are for the most part sad, dark, dreary, and mysterious, they are just like how his life was. After the age of two Poe never had real parents only people who looked after him after his parents died. He didn’t know if his home was only temporary or if it was for good, for all he knew the people he was living with could kick him out of their house and stop supporting him. He lived his life day by day not knowing what the next day would bring or if he would have a house to live in the next day. His future was never certain, he didn’t have anything in life to look forward to, and he didn’t know where his life was leading him. Just like in his book â€Å"The Cask Of Amontillado† where Montressor leads Fortunato down a dark set of circling stairs, and Fortunato doesn’t know that Montressor is leading him to his future which is his death. That is like Poe’s life because Poe doesn’t know where his live is heading just like Fortunato doesn’t know where he is going walking those dark stairs. Everything in Poe’s future is dark and dreary, not clear as to what is going to be next for him. When Poe was younger he went to the English and Classical School which the sons of upper class families attended. Since Poe came from a relatively poor family, he didn’t feel like he fit in very well. He felt like an outcast, even though he was most likely smarter than most of the other kids he wasn’t brought up the same way. That is the same theme as in another book he wrote called â€Å"Great Expectations†, where the main character, Pip, goes through the same problems that Poe did. Pip’s parents died when he was very young and he was relatively poor. He got a job working with a very rich lady who had a daughter Pip’s age. Pip fell in love with her but he felt different because they were on two totally different social levels. Pip was poor and the lady he worked for was very rich. Also the house that Pip worked in was very dreary, and the curtains were always closed and no light was allowed in the  house except for candles. So that gives the impr ession of sadness and that is just how Poe felt like in his life. Edgar Allan Poe never got any breaks in his lifetime, everything he got he worked very hard for. Since he never got any breaks in his life he never took anything for granted, that is why his writings were always so successful. He put a lot of time and effort into his writings, and they were similar to his own life. Also, since he always had to work for everything he wanted once he was able to write a book he worked even harder so he wouldn’t lose what he had earned, and that is why his writings are still talked about today. That concludes my thesis paper, all of those proof paragraphs prove that Edgar Allan Poe’s writings illuminate his upbringing. Now that I have done research on Poe I understand why his writings are the way they are, and I think that he is probably one of the best writers ever because of everything he overcame to become a writer.

Should College Ban Alcohol Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Should College Ban Alcohol - Research Proposal Example Coupled with many other problems, the freedom to drink alcohol in colleges has been seen to be responsible for a number of social ills. A section of the society feels that colleges should ban alcohol so that students do not drink on campus (Correia 56). Similarly, there are also others who feel that colleges should not ban alcohol. Both sides of the argument have advanced various reasons for their arguments. Nothing much in those two wide opinions has changed. The debate still rages. Pro-Alcohol Ban in Colleges Arguments Alcohol Drinking in Colleges Impact Negatively in Learning Outcomes To begin with, supporting side of the argument on whether colleges should ban alcohols has advanced various reasons for this position. Research results published in AlcoholEdu between 2008-2009 found out that alcoholism in college impacts negatively on learning objectives and outcome. The authors say, â€Å"The number of drinks consumed correlates with the number of classes missed.† By this, the authors imply that the more a student drinks in college, the more such a student will be inclined to miss classes. The authors feel that it should be the responsibility of the society to shape the development of such student so that do not waste study time. The strength of this assertion is that it logically points out that missed classes may most likely result in a fail grade in the unit concerned. Therefore, as such students mature up with time, they should be guided on the right path by banning alcohol on campus. Even so, it appears that such an argument is weak in the sense that it insinuates that colleges should babysit adult students.

Supply chain management definition Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Supply chain management definition - Case Study Example The service industry relies heavily on the customer experience as it is subjective and therefore introduces complexities into the supply chain. These complexities arise from the variety of goods and services demand from the customer, as they are not uniform in their demand. Therefore the value of the supply chain always starts with customer, as they want shorter times to market for new goods and services. The customer also wants some level of customisation and personalisation to their circumstances which means the service organisation has to reduce its inventories and keep lower stock to prevent losses from unsold stock. Lower unit costs allow the service organisation to pass on a cost advantage to the customer, and this involves improving its use of existing assets in the first instance to reduce disruption to its quality advantage. This essay will analyse a case study of Marks and Spencer and their management of the supply chain. ... Marks and Spencer (M&S) was established in an era where public opinion was still conservative and fashion dictated to the public. This was reflected in its styles and clothing lines, and its dated methods of supply chain management. M&S had two seasons which meant they had a large inventory and profits were dependent on the ability of the stores to clear this stock. This practice was significantly different to that of its competitors, who had realised that restructuring the supply chain process was the only way to meet the unstable customer demand. M&S had also failed to analyse its external environment, which led to its competitors gaining a competitive edge. For instance, Zara, a Spanish clothing retailer, had created its target market and its stock was only available in store for a maximum of 4 weeks, compared to 9 months for M&S. Zara was able to achieve this turnaround by managing its supply chain, which enabled it to be flexible to cope with fluctuating demands. The limited time for stock availability also meant that customers were exposed to more fashion ranges and designs and this created the perception of personalisation. So whilst Zara and other competitors were focussing their efforts on a niche market, M&S was still marketing to a non-descript market and not offering the choice, flexibility and speed demanded by the customer. M&S had failed to act on falling customer satisfaction ratings by simply ignoring them and not realising that part of this dissatisfaction lay in its earlier decision to withdraw the children's clothing range. By the time M&S had reached this realisation, profits had halved and the forecast was not promising. As they had not sold any of their stock, their warehouses were still filled with the previous

Chinas One Child Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Chinas One Child Policy - Essay Example In addition, second children are subject to birth spacing of three or four years. If more children are born in the family, this will result in fines. It is reported that most families are required to "pay economic penalties and cannot receive bonuses from the birth control program (One Child Policy 2)." Privileges are given to children in one child families one of which is lower payment. China's One Child Policy is in response to the high population growth during the 1970s when an average woman gave birth to six children. The large number of children becomes acceptable as "parents traditionally relied on a large number of offspring to provide an economic security blanket (Fong 1)." Another purpose of the initiative is to help the country "leapfrog from a Third-World economy to a First-World economy by mimicking the First World fertility and educational patterns." The One Child Policy has a great impact in China. The Taipei Times report that it leaves the country with a huge shortage of women. During 1982, China's gender ratio had stayed relatively normal with 100 girls for every 108 boys.

The movie ( the station Agent) Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The ( the station Agent) - Movie Review Example Rather, it explores the possibility and feasibility of strange equations between newly acquainted humans. For example, when Fin moves to the old building left behind by Henry (upon the latter’s death), he suddenly finds himself forming an intricate network of social interactions. In this newfound social atmosphere there are opportunities for creative exploration as well as for personal bonding. The former is attested by the joy Fin derives through observing and studying trains and the latter is borne by the close personal bonds he develops with Joe and Olivia. The most distinct character of this independent film is the lack of sexual interest in any of these relationships. This is a far cry from conventional Hollywood fare whose plots are woven around sexual/romantic interest of the lead characters. The Station Agent is simultaneously inspiring and thought-provoking. For example, the film shows the transformation of a physically disadvantage person’s attitude toward life and other humans. This way it poses key questions to the viewer as to how they view their own predicaments in life. Fin’s near-death experience on the rail tracks is an imploration to the audience to seize everyday moments and make the maximum out of them. This subtle and implicit dialogue that the director Thomas McCarthy strikes with the viewer makes The Station Agent a truly one-of-its-kind independent

Specific heat capacity laboratory Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Specific heat capacity laboratory - Assignment Example substance by 1 degree which is obtained through the equation Q = m*C*∆T where ‘m’ refers to the mass of material, C is the specific heat and ∆T is the change of temperature. ∆T in Kelvins is the same in magnitude as ∆T in Celsius, hence, the specific heat for water may also be reported as 4.18 J/g-Â °C. Because the specific heat values for a given substance can vary slightly with temperature, the temperature is often precisely specified. (3) Record the initial temperature of water prior to heating. Switch on the electric kettle and note down temperature reading measured after every 15 seconds until the instant is reached when the water starts boiling. The units for the special heat capacity based on C = Q / (m∆T) is J kg-1K-1 and by mere inspection, the rated power consumption of the kettle is 2200 Watts (or JÂ ·s-1). Thus, the maximum amount of energy that the kettle can be expected to transfer to the water over a period of 15 seconds is 33,000 Joules which is the product of power consumed and time elapsed. Actual energy transfer may be less than this amount due to the energy lost through heating the kettle itself, the surrounding air, and even the noise which take up some dissipated heat in the process. Assuming complete energy transfer with a 100% efficient kettle, 2200*(t) = (200 grams)*(4.2 J g-1Â °C-1)*(100Â °C - 10Â °C) gives t = 34.36 seconds or the time it would take to get a 200-gram water to boil. The indicated form y = 0.462x + 27.34 translates to T = 0.462*t + 27.34. Clearly, the graph is a straight line, which plateaus at ~ 100 Â °C while the gradient remains constant (linear) with time until it reaches the boiling point. Slope approaches zero or gradient flattens when the kettle is boiling. The gradient of this graph is the specific heat capacity of water 4610 J*kg-1K-1 or 4.61 J*g-1K-1(using the data points. Apparently, this makes an overestimate when compared to literature value of 4.2 J*g-1K-1 due to energy dissipation in the

Review for Carmen Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Review for Carmen - Essay Example There were many actions that I observed to be exemplary in terms of the finest performance as I watched the play. The major action that I observed to be interesting as well as powerful was the scene where Don Jose stabbed Carmen. Since the story is about the seduction by Carmen, Don Jose was a person who was jealous of her lovers. In order to make sure that he had a hold of Carmen, he stabbed her which haunts the viewers as well because of her lead role in the play. The set design, as well as the lighting, played a major role in enhancing the overall scenario (WichitaGrandOpera). The major theme that has been well shown in the play is jealousy. It should be noted that it is a feeling that can make people get on an incorrect path. As a matter of fact, the action discussed in above has given a definition to the theme. For instance, the theme of jealousy showed people that a person who would want to get a grasp of a possession would ultimately lead into a situation where he would actually lose it. It is merely because of the lust and yearning to get something only out of being jealous (WichitaGrandOpera). As far as the production elements are concerned, critics have discussed various pointers. For instance, acting, direction, and set-design have been critiqued by a number of widely-known critics when it comes to the play Carmen. I believe that the set-design played a very major role in making the play successful. International set designers were employed in order to design the sets. Thus, special research was conducted in order to present each and every aspect and element of the story (WichitaGrandOpera). Through the above analysis, it could be well-stated that the play Carmen is one of the most critical plays in the history. Its effective presentation has been done by a number of presenters and directors through theatrical setting. However, very few have been able to present its true essence. Thus, from the above

Face-to-Face Versus Online Education Essay Example for Free

Face-to-Face Versus Online Education Essay Education is essential to the future of our society. Many adults, including scholars and teachers, are constantly searching for the best way to educate students today. Face-to-face education, being the genuine form, seems to be the first choice of many students. However, online education is becoming more popular and is being used more often at universities. Online courses are convenient for some who have busy schedules which obstruct them from attending face-to-face courses. Online education may be the most convenient form of education, but is it an effective form? Several valid arguments have been made by scholars and other individuals claiming it meets both of these standards. The main question students and scholars would like to know is whether or not one form is better than the other. There are several differences between online and face-to-face education. Lecture classrooms are common in universities. They are an easy way to teach a large number of students at once, however, many students dislike lectures because it places them in the majority. In a lecture classroom setting, students may not have the chance to communicate with the professor or even their peers. Students may feel shy and intimidated by the amount of people around them. The online discussions, chat rooms, and e-mail features in web-based classes makes it virtually impossible to avoid communication with fellow students or teachers. The social barriers which exist in face-to-face communication often seem to be non-existent in online communication and students feel a lot less pressured to speak up, or should I say type up. Online communication, however, does not allow for nonverbal cues and this tends to limit the quality of certain discussions and lecture notes. Some  students may feel they need to be face-to-face with the person teaching them in order to better understand and comprehend the material being presented. Being able to hear what the professor has to say can draw the attention of some and distract the attention of others, sometimes depending on the excellence of the professor. Students are encouraged to try web classes if they have trouble learning from what they hear and find it easier to comprehend what they read. The convenience of online learning is possibly its most brilliant quality. Students find it practical that they can attend a class while sitting in the comfort of their own home. Soldiers, pregnant women, and others with tight schedules are all able to complete their course work in a timely manner through web-based courses. A man who works full time as an assistant at law firm and wants to continue working, while attending classes so he can become a lawyer himself, may want to take online courses instead of face-to-face in order to accomplish both goals. I think situations like this one makes online learning brilliant since it opens doors of opportunity to certain people. By posting information in discussion forums up to several times a day, professors can keep students working, but the students can respond when they have the chance. Online courses allow convenience for time and patience also. Think about the amount of time you spend driving to school and walking to classes, or the frustration of trying to get to a class on time while searching for a parking space in which you wont be towed or ticketed. I spend up to twenty minutes of some school days driving in my car, congested with my vulgarity and frustration, searching for a parking space. Even with the beauty of all its aspects, some say convenience should not be an alternative to higher education. Even though convenience is a positive attribute about the online classroom, it may not be enough to provide for the social and educational needs of students. (Barakat) Students have claimed that they like the idea of not having to attend class but disliked the process of communicating in a delayed, impersonal manner.(Barakat) Through my online education experience, I have found that there are benefits  and disadvantages communicating on the web. Since times and meeting places are not specified in online group work, members of the group cannot make excuses on why they cannot attend. The assignments can be worked on by each group member on their own time. The group members can then cooperate with one another through postings or e-mail to equally combine their contributions. We dont have to worry about the group members who did not participate receiving credit (as commonly happens in in-class group work) because we submit only the names of those who participated in the assignment. Having experienced both online and face-to-face education, I have come to the popular opinion: Online education has its positive aspects in relation to convenience and quantity of communication, however, I believe that face-to-face education produces better quality of communication which, in the end, is more essential to the learning process. Online education is convenient and can grant students opportunity to communicate more often with their professors and peers through postings and mail forums. Face-to-face education allows students to learn in a more personal nature which may make the learning process easier and more enjoyable. Neither form of education has been declared the right, or best form. Different individuals have varied beliefs and opinions on which type of education is the best. In order to form an opinion as to which form of education is best for you develop a hypothesis and then experiment by experiencing both forms. Finally, ask yourself, Is online education as effective as traditional face-to-face education? References Barakat., Dr. Samer A. On-line Education Versus Classroom Face To Face Education. www.sharjah.ac.ae/academic/engineering/e-forum/Abstracts-htm/a2-4.htm#. Kindred, Jeannette. Thinking About the Online Classroom: Evaluating the Ideal Versus the Real. www.acjournal.org/holdings/vol3/Iss3/rogue4/kindred.html. Chamberlin, Sean W. Face-to-Face vs. Cyberspace: Finding the Middle Ground. Syllabus Magazine. Thu., Mar. 4, 2004. J. R. Bourne, A. J. Brodersen, J. O., A Model for On-Line Learning Networks in Engineering Education, Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 85, No 3

Die fusion von hewlett-packard

Die fusion von hewlett-packard 1. Einleitung „Aus zwei Verlierern wird kein Gewinner, diese auf die Fusion von Hewlett-Packard und Compaq bezogene Aussage stammt von Bob Djurdjevic. (Schießel, 2001) Ist das wirklich wahr? Mà ¼ssen vermeintliche Verlierer auch immer solche bleiben? Resultiert daraus, dass aus zwei Gewinnern immer ein neuer wird? Fast tà ¤glich berichten die Medien à ¼ber Unternehmenszusammenschlà ¼sse, immer wieder ist die Rede von „Mergers and Acquisitions und jedes hat seine eigene Meinung darà ¼ber, ob die einzelnen Transaktionen erfolgreich waren oder nicht. Es muss sich niemand die Meinung eines Anderen aneignen, wenn er die Mittel dafà ¼r hat, sich seine eigene bilden zu kà ¶nnen. In unserer Seminararbeit geht es um Erfolgsfaktoren von „Mergers and Acquisitions. Wir mà ¶chten nicht nur die Erfolgsfaktoren vorstellen, sondern dem Leser ein Werkzeug in die Hand geben. Mit diesem Hilfsmittel sollte er in der Lage sein Unternehmenszusammenschlà ¼sse von einer neuen Perspektive, nà ¤mlich die des Kritikers, zu betrachten. Es wird ihm eine Checkliste als Grundschema vorgegeben, anhand dessen er seine persà ¶nliche Einstufung eines Zusammenschlusses in Erfolg bzw. Misserfolg vornehmen kann. Zum Schluss unserer Seminararbeit wenden wir unsere aus der Theorie abgeleitete Liste auf das Fallbeispiel Hewlett-Packard und Compaq an. Daher werden wir soweit es unsere Literatur erlaubt insbesondere auf „Mergers and Acquisitions in der IT-Branche eingehen. Eine detaillierte Erarbeitung von finanziellen Aspekten insbesondere Aktienkursen werden wir vernachlà ¤ssigen, weil wir davon ausgehen, dass diese Informationen fà ¼r jeden Interessenten leicht auffindbar sind. Auch das Thema der Unternehmenskultur wird nur erwà ¤hnt, aber nicht bearbeitet, da dieses Thema den Rahmen unserer Arbeit sprengen wà ¼rde. Jeder Leser unserer Seminararbeit soll im Nachhinein sein eigenes Werkzeug, d.h. seine eigene Checkliste zur Beurteilung von Unternehmenszusammenschlà ¼ssen erstellen und auch anwenden kà ¶nnen. Denn wir sind der Meinung dass Erfolg keine objektive sondern subjektive Einschà ¤tzung ist. Die Arbeit ist in die Kapitel Begriffliche Grundlagen, Motive fà ¼r Merger Acquisitions Transaktionen, Wandel der IT-Branche, Die drei Phasen der Fusionen, Kritische Erfolgsfaktoren von Mergers Acqusitions, Praxisbeispiel: Fusion von HP und Compaq sowie einem Fazit untergliedert. Im Kapitel Begriffliche Grundlagen werden die fà ¼r diese Arbeit notwendigen Begriffe definiert. Das Kapitel Motive fà ¼r Merger Acquisitions Transaktionen zeigt aus der Literatur, welche Motivationen Unternehmen haben eine Fusion oder Unternehmensà ¼bernahme zu tà ¤tigen. Im Kapitel Wandel der IT-Branche wird gezeigt wie sich der relevante Markt im laufe der Zeit verà ¤ndert. Im Kapitel Die drei Phasen der Fusionen wird detailliert der Ablauf einer Fusion aufgezeigt. Das Kapitel Kritische Erfolgsfaktoren von Mergers Acqusitions arbeitet aus der Literatur Erfolgsfaktoren heraus welche man bei einer Fusion wahrnehmen kann und arbeitet diese fà ¼r den IT-Markt aus. Im Praxisbeispiel Kapitel wird d ie herausgearbeitete Theorie an einem Vorgestellten Beispiel erprobt. Im Fazit wird der Wert und die Aussagekraft der Erfolgsfaktoren kritisch gewà ¼rdigt. 2. Begriffliche Grundlagen Das Kapitel Begriffliche Grundlagen ist der Grundstein der Arbeit. Es werden die Begriffe Mergers and Acquisitions und Erfolgsfaktoren definiert. Eine Eingrenzung und Definition der IT-Branche, wie sie in dieser Arbeit verwendet wird, erfolgt im dritten Unterpunkt. Alle nachfolgen Kapitel verwenden diese Begrifflichkeiten. 2.1 Mergers and Acquisitions Externe Wachstumsstrategien durch Unternehmenszusammenfà ¼hrungen in Form von Fusionen oder Erwerbe bieten Unternehmen eine Alternative zum internen Wachstum, die durch Aktivierung eigener Potenziale realisiert werden kà ¶nnten.[1] (Bea Haas, 2001: 171ff) Das fà ¼r Fusionen und Erwerbe stehende englische Begriffspaar Mergers and Acquisitions (MA) gehà ¶rt mittlerweile zum deutschen Sprachgebrauch (Picot, 2000: 15), wobei Merger auch als „Verschmelzung, „Vereinigung oder als „Zusammenschluss von Unternehmen à ¼bersetzt werden kann (Macharzina, 2003: 636). Acquistitions steht fà ¼r den „() Kauf ganzer Unternehmen bzw. einzelner Unternehmensteile oder strategischer Anteilspakete () (Mà ¼ller-Stewens, Spickers Deiss, 1999: 1). In einigen Bà ¼chern werden die beiden Wachstumsarten „Merger und „Acquisition nicht differenziert, sondern syonym verwendet (Schrà ¶der, 2007: 2). Falls doch eine Unterscheidung erfolgen soll, so kann diese durch die Bindungsintensità ¤t durch die Analyse rechtlicher und wirtschaftlicher Selbststà ¤ndigkeit vor und nach des Zusammenschlusses ausgearbeitet werden (Lucks Meckel, 2002: 23). „Nach der Richtung der Diversifikation kà ¶nnen horizontale, vertikale und konglomerate Zusammenschlà ¼sse unterschieden werden (Bà ¼hner, 1985: 28) Tà ¤tigen zwei Unternehmen der selben Branche eine MA so spricht man von einem horizontalen Zusammenschluss. Wenn die Unternehmen an einer Produktionskette liegen, so spricht von einem vertikalen Zusammenschluss. Um einen konglomeraten MA handelt es sich, wenn die Unternehmen weder auf Produkt- noch auf Marktebene Gemeinsamkeiten aufweisen.[2] (Bà ¼hner, 1990: 5f) Wir werden in unserer Arbeit die Begriffe „Merger und „Acquisition synonym verwenden. 2.2 Erfolgsfaktoren Nach (Daschmann, 1994: 1) versteht man unter Erfolgsfaktoren alle in einem Unternehmen vorkommenden Determinanten, Maßnahmen und Aktività ¤ten, die den zukà ¼nftigen Erfolg positiv beeinflussen kà ¶nnen. Um seine Wettbewerbsfà ¤higkeit zu erhà ¶hen muss ein Unternehmen seine Erfolgsfaktoren, d.h. seine eigenen Stà ¤rken und Mà ¶glichkeiten kennen und sie bei seinen strategischen Entscheidungen heranziehen. Auch seine Investition sollten gezielt in deren Richtung gelenkt werden um seinen wirtschaftlichen Erfolg verbessern zu kà ¶nnen. (Mandorf, 2008) Der Unternehmenserfolg hà ¤ngt zum grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸ten Teil von sog. kritischen Erfolgsfaktoren ab, wà ¤hrend die meisten anderen Faktoren diesen untergeordnet sind. (Hoffmann, 1986: 832) 2.3 IT-Branche Bei der Definiton der IT-Branche treten methodische Probleme auf, denn es handelt sich um einen à ¼ber mehrere klassische Branchen verteilten Sektor. Selbst die offizielle Wirtschaftsstatistik weist keine allgemein gà ¼ltige Begriffsbestimmung auf, sondern zà ¤hlt einzelne IT-relevante Wirtschaftsbereiche zusammen. (Langenstein, 2006: 14f) Somit ist der IT-Sektor nur durch die Angabe der betroffenen Wirtschaftszweige definierbar. (Menez, Munder, , Tà ¶psch, 2001) In unserer Arbeit stellen wir nur eine Mà ¶glichkeit zur Abgrenzung des IT-Sektors vor: Nach dem Global Industry Classification Standard (GICS) umfasst der IT-Sektor die folgenden allgemeinen drei Bereiche: Softwaretechnologie und Softwaredienstleistung, diese umfasst unter anderem Unternehmen, die Softwareentwicklung in verschiedenen Bereichen wie z.B. dem Internet und Datenbanken anbieten. Auch Beratungs- und Dienstleistungsunternehmen der Informationstechnologie gehà ¶ren in diese Kategorie. Hardware und Ausrà ¼stung, in diesen Bereich fallen die Hersteller und Vertreiber von elektornischen Gerà ¤ten und den zugehà ¶rigen Intsrumenten. Halbleiter und Halbleiterausrà ¼stungs Hersteller 3. Motive fà ¼r Merger Acquisitions Transaktionen Nachdem die begrifflichen Grundlagen im 2.Kapitel geschafft wurden sind, stellen wir nun die Antriebskrà ¤fte, die das Handeln der Unternehmen auf die Akquisitionsziele ausrichten, vor. (Bamberger, 1994: 59) In diesem Kapitel werden die wichtigsten und hà ¤ufigsten Motive fà ¼r MA dargestellt. Achleitner (2002) unterscheidet die Fusionsmotive in wertmaximierende Motive, die generell durch Ertrags- und Kostensynergien ergeben ist, und die nicht wertmaximierende Motive. (Kirchhoff, 2009: 20). Dem zu Folge kategorisiert der (Achleitner, 2002) die Fusionsmotive in Strategische, finanzielle und persà ¶nliche Motive. 3.1 Strategische Motive In diesem Unterpunkt werden die strategischen Motive von Unternehmen in die Punkte Synergieeffekte, Ausnutzung von Marktmacht und Markterweiterung unterteilt und dargestellt. Alle drei Punkt sind von gleicher Bedeutung. 3.1.1 Synergieeffekte Ein wichtiges Motiv fà ¼r MA stellt die Realisierung von Synergieeffekten dar. Es werden die bereits vorhandenen Ressourcen beider oder mehrer Kooperationsunternehmen gebà ¼ndelt. Damit wird auf verschiedenste Art und Weise das Ziel verfolgt, die Effizienz in Unternehmen zu erhà ¶hen und Kosten einzusparen. Aufgrund von Grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸envorteilen ( Economie of scale ) kà ¶nnen produktionswirtschaftliche Synergieeffekte erzielt werden. Dabei sinken die Stà ¼ckkosten durch die Massenproduktion. Dies fà ¼hrt teilweise dazu, dass Rationalisierungsgewinne durch Personalabbau, erzielt werden. (Budzinski Kerber 2003: 42; Park 2004: 51f). Weiterhin treten aufgrund von Verbundvorteilen ( Economies of scope ) operationale Synergieeffekte auf. D.h. die Leistung, die jedes Unternehmen unabhà ¤ngig von einander erbracht hat, wird zusammengefasst. Auf dieser Weise kà ¶nnen hà ¶here Skalenertrà ¤ge erzielt werden. In vielen Branchen mit hohen Investitionskosten ist es von zentraler Bedeutung Forschungs- und Entwicklungs-Synergieeffekte zu erzielen, damit durch Unternehmenszusammenschà ¼sse sowohl die Kosten, als auch das Risiko gestreut werden kann (Budzinski Kerber 2003: 44; Park 2004: 52). Ist die Grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸e eines Unternehmens gestiegen, so kann man von den finanzwirtschaftlichen Synergieeffekten profitieren, da das Unternehmen fà ¼r die potentiellen Anleger attraktiver erscheint. Dies erleichtert die Aufnahme in Bà ¶rsenindices und somit den Anstieg der Kreditlinie bei Banken (Kleinert Klodt, 2002: 43). 3.1.2 Ausnutzung von Marktmacht Bei einem Zusammenschließen erhoffen sich die Unternehmen zum einen Wettbewerber aus dem Markt genommen zu haben und zum anderen den Marktanteil des à ¼berlebenden Unternehmens zu steigern. Die dadurch gestiegene Marktmacht der Unternehmen ermà ¶glicht ihnen eine flexiblere Preisgestaltung gegenà ¼ber Kunden sowie Lieferanten. Somit kann die Marktmacht zu einem erheblichen Wettbewerbsvorteil auf dem Markt beitragen. Die Unternehmen kà ¶nnen durch MA Eintrittsbarrieren fà ¼r die zukà ¼nftigen Konkurrenten aufbauen. Durch den Nichteintritt weiterer Konkurrenten sichern sie sich eine stabilere Preismacht auf dem Markt. (Klopfer, 2008: 44) 3.1.3 Markterweiterung Ein weiteres klassisches Ziel der strategischen Unternehmensakquisition ist das Streben nach dem Marktwachstum. Damit verfolgen Unternehmen in erster Linie das Ziel der Umsatzsteigerung und der Stabilisierung ihrer Ertrà ¤ge. Die Umsatzsteigerung resultiert aus dem Eintritt in neue attraktive Mà ¤rkte und aus der Erhà ¶hung der Wertschà ¶pfungspotenziale. Bei der geographischen Expansion wird zwischen den grenzà ¼berschreitenden, so genannten „Cross- Border- Zusammenschlà ¼ssen und den nationalen MA differenziert. (Jansen Kà ¶rner, 2000: 18) (Jansen, 2000b: 388) Es ist beobachtbar, dass in den vergangenen Jahren die grenzà ¼berschreitenden Zusammenschlà ¼sse mehr an Bedeutung gewonnen haben. Die Unternehmen kà ¶nnen sich dadurch den langwierigen und risikoreichen Eigenaufbau in einem fremden Land ersparen. (Amihud Lev , 2002: 21). Allerdings sind dabei die kulturellen oder sprachlichen Unterschiede nicht zu unterschà ¤tzen. In diesem Zusammenhang bestà ¤tigt auch Wolfgang Wagner, Senior Partner und CEO der PricewaterhouseCoopers Eurofirms ( PWC ) die Relevanz dieses Motivs mit der Aussage: CEOs kleiner und großer Unternehmen aus der ganzen Welt sehen zunehmend Wachstumsmà ¶glichkeiten fà ¼r ihre Unternehmen. Sie nutzen die Globalisierung nicht mehr primà ¤r zum Outsourcing oder der Produktionsverlagerung in Niedriglohnlà ¤nder, sondern um neue Produkte, neue Absatzmà ¤rkte und neue Kunden zu finden (presseportal.de, 2009) 3.2 Persà ¶nliche Motive Als treibende Kraft fà ¼r Fusionen wird hà ¤ufig das Management genannt. Unterstellt man einen perfekten Kapitalmarkt, so ist nach Manne (1965) der Kapitalwert einer Unternehmung direkt von der Leistung des Managementteams der Unternehmung abhà ¤ngig. Er folgert, dass eine schlechter bewertete Unternehmung von einem ineffizienten Managementteam geleitet wird und bei einer à ¼bernahme von einem effizienteren Managementteam abgelà ¶st wird. Dieses kann durch einen besseren Fà ¼hrungsstil die Effizienzpotentiale als Gewinn realisieren. Bei einem intensiven Unternehmenskontrollen Wettbewerb der Managementteams wà ¤ren keine Freirà ¤ume fà ¼r deren eigenen Ziele oder Interessen vorhanden. Nach dieser Theorie sind die Interessen der Eigentà ¼mer und des Managementteams kongruent. Da die Prà ¤missen in der Globalisierten Welt von Heute nicht zutreffen und es keinen perfekten Kapitalmarkt gibt, entstehen Freirà ¤ume fà ¼r das Managementteam um seine von den Eigentà ¼mern abweichenden Ziele zu verfolgen. Es entsteht nach Bà ¼hner (1990, 19) eine Pricipal- Agenten Situation zwischen Eigentà ¼mer und Management. Das Hauptziel der Eigentà ¼mer ist eine Gewinnmaximierung. Das Hauptziel des Managements kann hiervon abweichen. Es kann nach persà ¶nlichen Motiven handeln, um sein eigenes Einkommen zu maximieren. Die Gehà ¤lter hà ¤ngen von vielen Faktoren ab wie z.B. der Grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸e der Unternehmung, der Umsatzhà ¶he, der Mitarbeiterzahlen oder der Aktienkurse. Diese Faktoren kà ¶nnen vermeintlich durch eine Fusion oder à ¼bernahme herbeigefà ¼hrt werden. Das eigene Prestige und der Bekanntheitsgrad sind Eigenschaften des Managementteams, welche durch eine Fusion gesteigert werden kà ¶nnen und sich auf das eigene Einkommen in der Zukunft positiv auswirken kà ¶nnen, aber nicht der Gewinnmaximierung der Unternehmung dienen. Es besteht nun das Risiko von „unprofitablen Fusionen oder à ¼bernahmen von Managementteams, falls diese nicht von den Eigentà ¼mern kontrolliert werden. Eine Kontrolle von den Eigentà ¼mern kann durch ein Anreizsystem geschehen. Nach Faulli-Oller und Motta (1996) mà ¼ssen mit dem Managementteam Vertrà ¤ge geschlossen werden, die einen Anreiz fà ¼r die Entlohnung geben. Sie schlagen eine à ¼bernahmesteuer vor, diese wà ¼rde dem Management von dem Gehalt abgezogen werden. Die Entscheidung fà ¼r eine à ¼bernahme soll aber bei dem Managementteam bleiben, da diese sich mit dem Tagesgeschà ¤ft beschà ¤ftigen und sich besser mit der Materie auskennen. Fusionen dienen auch dem Management als Schutz vor der eigenen à ¼bernahme. Je grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸er ein Unternehmen ist, umso schwerer ist es sie zu à ¼bernehmen. Als Folge dieser Tatsache entsteht fà ¼r das Management ein Arbeitsplatz und dieser ist einer geringeren Bedrohung von Außen ausgesetzt. Als Zusammenfassung kann man bestà ¤tigen, dass es ein heterogenes Feld zwischen den Eigentà ¼mern und dem Management gibt. Neben den strategischen Motiven geben die Management Motive eine Erklà ¤rung dafà ¼r, warum es so viele und auch unprofitable Fusionen gibt. Das gelingen einer Fusion hà ¤ngt somit zum Teil auch von dem Management und dessen Interessen ab. 3.3 Branchenspezifische Motivationen In der Literatur lassen sich spezifische Motivationen feststellen, die insbesondere fà ¼r die IT-Branche gelten. Nach Fox (2002) ist die Motivation von Technologie Erwerb durch MAs in der IT-Branche sehr hoch. Das fà ¼hrt er auf den Wandel in der IT-Branche und dem damit entstehenden Druck sich Sektoren à ¼bergreifend zu positionieren und zu einem Anbieter von Produkten aller Sektoren zu werden. Die schnellste Là ¶sung eine Technologie zugà ¤nglich zu machen, ist der Zusammenschluss mit einem Unternehmen, welches diese Technologie besitzt. Wenn ein sektorenà ¼bergreifendes Angebot von Produkten geboten wird, haben die Unternehmen den Vorteil, dass sie sich nicht auf ein Segment fixieren und von den Wachstumsschwankungen abhà ¤ngig sind. Insbesondere ist dieses bei dem PC-Sektor so. Dieser Sektor ist sehr von der Performance der anderen Mà ¤rkte abhà ¤ngig und neigt zu starken Schwankungen. Die Motivation sich horizontal zu erweitern hà ¤ngt stark von dem Wandel in der IT-Br anche ab. Denn die Unternehmen mà ¼ssen sich den Nachfragen an diesem Markt anpassen. (Westerwelle, 2003: 41ff) 4. Wandel der IT-Branche In den Kapiteln vorhergehenden Kapiteln wurden die Begriffe dieser Arbeit definiert und die mà ¶glichen Motivationen fà ¼r MA insbesondere des IT-Sektors vorgestellt. Wir bleiben in diesem Kapitel in der IT-Branche und erlà ¤utern die anhaltenden Verà ¤nderungen der Branche. „Die IT-Branche ist im Fusionsfieber. Unternehmen versuchen, ihre Konkurrenten durch Expansion zu à ¼berrunden und sich neue Geschà ¤fte zu erschließen. Immer mehr Firmen setzten auf Dienstleistungen. (Berger, 2009) In Anlehnung von Westerwelle (2003: 37ff) kann man den Wandel wie folgt skizzieren. Mit dem Erfolg von Dell, welcher durch die Sà ¤ttigung des PC-Marktes und seinen sehr kostengà ¼nstigen direkt Vertrieb von PCs her kam, wurde der PC-Sektor Ende 2000 zu einem margenschwachen Sektor. Alle großen PC-Hersteller außer Dell machten in dem Jahr ab 2001 große Verluste von Marktanteil dieses Sektors. Der Sektor hatte kaum Wachstumspotential da eine Sà ¤ttigung am Markt bestand. Diese Sà ¤ttigung kam von den Leistungs-Level der PCs zu diesem Zeitpunkt, denn ihre Leistung war ausreichend und folglich waren die Unternehmen nicht mehr willig hohe Kosten fà ¼r die Herstellung von leistungsstà ¤rkerem PCs zu à ¼bernehmen. Die Kundenwà ¼nsche, insbesondere die der lukrativen Großkunden, à ¤nderten sich. Sie gingen zu einem Komplettangebot à ¼ber. Diese Kunden wollten eine ganze PC Infrastruktur kaufen und nicht mehr nur einen PC. Um das zu gewà ¤hrleisten mussten große Unternehmen wie IBM, HP oder Compaq ihre Angebotspalette stetig ausbauen. Da die Technologien im IT-Markt schnelllebig sind, behalfen sich diese Unternehmen einer schnellen Methode, die der MAs, um sich wichtige Technologien zugà ¤nglich zumachen. Der IT-Dienstleistungssektor welcher am margenreichsten ist wurde von IBM dominiert, da sich z.B. IBM auf die Integration von Netzwerkstrukturen verstand wurden von diesem Unternehmen nicht nur das Know-how sondern auch die spezifische Hardware bezogen. Dieses ist Resultat der Erkenntnis, dass eine effiziente und sehr gut abgestimmte Netzwerkstruktur nur mit abgestimmten Komponenten aus einer Hand preiswert realisiert werden kann. Diese gestiegene Nachfrage von effizienten Netzwerkstrukturen kam durch einen Wandel, die Einfà ¼hrung von Verteilung des Unternehmens à ¼ber das Internet. Die Nutzung des Internets von Kunden, hat einen Wandel im IT-Markt gebracht. Was die Spieler in diesem Markt noch immer zu massiven Verà ¤nderungen Ihrer Angebote zwingt. Mit diesem Kapitel werden die Branchenbedingungen von HP und Compaq wà ¤hrend unserer Untersuchungszeitspanne bis zum Jahr 2003 erà ¶rtert. 5. Die drei Phasen der Fusionen In dem folgenden Kapitel werden die Schritte eines Fusionsprozesses allgemein erklà ¤rt. Der Fusionsprozess là ¤sst sich grob in drei Phasen unterteilen, die chronologisch aufeinander bauen. Sie lauten Pre Merger- , Merger- und Post Mergerphase. Diesen Phasen werden wir, die von uns betrachteten, Erfolgsfaktoren zuordnen. 5.1 Pre Mergerphase Am Anfang des Prozesses steht die Pre Mergerphase. In dieser Phase wird zunà ¤chst eine allgemeine Grundstrategie formuliert. Bei dieser Formulierung geht es darum zuerst die Stà ¤rken und Schwà ¤chen des eigenen Unternehmens herauszuarbeiten und zu analysieren. Somit kann à ¼berprà ¼ft werden, ob das Unternehmen à ¼berhaupt eine Fusion benà ¶tigt. Als Abschluss des ersten Schrittes wird ein strategisches Konzept erstellt, welches die zusammenfassenden Erkenntnisse à ¼ber die Unternehmensanalyse sowie Motive und Ziele fà ¼r die bevorstehende Fusion beinhaltet. Ferner kà ¶nnte man aus dem erstellten Konzept erkennen, welche Bindungsintensità ¤t fà ¼r das Unternehmen besser geeignet wà ¤re. (Grube Tà ¶pfer, 2002: 44ff). Es ist wichtig, dass das Konzept sorgfà ¤ltig bearbeitet wird, da letztendlich der Erfolg oder Misserfolg einer Fusion bereits in dieser Phase bestimmt wird. (Middelmann, 2000: 113) „Diese Kenntnisse erleichtern in der anschließenden Phase die Suche nach dem optimalen Partner, das so genannte Screening (Stegmann, 2002: 32) Dementsprechend werden die mà ¶glichen Kooperationspartner auf einer Liste aufgefà ¼hrt und nach wichtigen Kriterien wie beispielweise potenziellen Synergieeffekten bewertet. (Rà ¶dl, 2002: 39) Fà ¼r die Kandidatenauswahl sollte das Unternehmen einen kontinuierlichen und systematischen Prozess einfà ¼hren, bis sie den optimalen Partner gefunden haben. (Wirtschaftswoche, 2008, Nr. 28) 5.2 Merger- Phase Die Merger- Phase beginnt nach der erfolgeichen Suche eines geeigneten Fusionspartners und verlà ¤uft à ¼ber Verhandlungsstrategien bis hin zum endgà ¼ltigen Vertragabschluss. Um eine endgà ¼ltige Entscheidung zu treffen, ob der potenzielle Fusionspartner wirklich geeignet ist, werden externe Spezialisten wie Unternehmensberater und Wirtschaftsprà ¼fer zur Hilfe gebeten, diese bilden das sog. Due Dilligence- Team. Um die in der Pre Merger- Phase formulierten Ziele der angestrebten Fusion erreichen zu kà ¶nnen, à ¼berprà ¼fen die Spezialisten, wo sich die Schwà ¤chen des eigenen Unternehmens und die Stà ¤rken des potenziellen Partners ausgleichen. Dieses Vorgehen wird in der Literatur als strategisches Fit bezeichnet. (Middelmann, 2000: 114) „ Due Dilligence bedeutet, dass die zu erstellenden Analysen mit hà ¶chster Sorgfalt durchzufà ¼hren sind. Dabei sollen Gefahren, aber auch Chancen des bevorstehenden Unternehmenszusammenschlusses erkannt werden. (Scott, 2002: 14) Kommt das betrachtete Zielunternehmen als Fusionspartner in Frage, so werden in einer weiteren Analyse seine Wirtschaftlichkeit, seine Geschichte und das finanzielle Risiko, das mit der angestrebten Fusion aufkommen wà ¼rde, unter die Lupe genommen. (Middelmann, 2000: 114f) Falls die Analyse ein positives Ergebnis liefert und das Zielunternehmen zu einem Zusammenschluss bereit ist, wird unter der Prà ¤misse die rechtlichen Kartellbedingungen nicht zu verletzen, Vertragsverhandlungen gefà ¼hrt und letztendlich ein Vertrag ausgearbeitet und abgeschlossen. 5.3 Post Merger- Phase Am Ende des Fusionsprozesses steht die Post Merger- Phase an, die sich sehr intensiv mit der Integration und deren Planung beschà ¤ftigt. Die Integrationsplanung orientiert sich an den, in den vergangenen Phasen ermittelten, Potenzialen vom Fusionspartner. Eine vorhergehende detaillierte Planung der Integration ist wichtig, um von den Synergien optimal gebrauch machen zu kà ¶nnen. (Grube Tà ¶pfer, 2002: 45ff) Die Aufgabe beider Unternehmensfà ¼hrungen ist es nun, trotz der gravierenden Unterschiede in den Bereichen wie Kultur und Organisation, ein neues einheitliches Unternehmen zu errichten. Des Weitern mà ¼ssen alle betrieblichen Ablà ¤ufe in der Fertigung und Steuerung, wie Controlling, Rechnungswesen und Personal, aufeinander abgestimmt sein. (Middelmann, 2000: 118f) Nicht zu vernachlà ¤ssigen ist die intensive Zusammenarbeit mit der Personalorganisation, damit Unsicherheit und eine eventuelle Demotivation bei den Mitarbeitern vermieden werden kann. Hier spricht man von der internen Kommunikation im Unternehmen, die gestà ¤rkt werden muss. Neben der internen Kommunikation spielt die externe Kommunikation auch eine sehr große Rolle. Das heißt, dass die Gesprà ¤che und Informationen à ¼ber den Ablauf der Fusion in den Veranstaltungen und Verà ¶ffentlichungen sehr gezielt und vertrauenerweckend sein mà ¼ssen, um die Skepsis von Kunden, Lieferanten und Wettbewerbern gegenà ¼ber dem neu entstandenen Unternehmen abzubauen. (Middelmann, 2000: 118f) Die besondere Schwierigkeit dieser Phase liegt bei dieser Integrationsaufgabe. Gelingt der reibungslose Zusammenschluss nicht oder nur unzureichend, so war die Fusion nicht erfolgreich. Darà ¼ber hinaus sollte das Unternehmen die Dauer des Integrationsprozesses genau festlegen, denn meistens treten die gewà ¼nschten Synergieeffekte der Fusion erst nach mehreren Jahren nach der Fusion ein. (Grube Tà ¶pfer, 2002: 45ff) Wird der Integrationsprozess zu kurz bemessen, so kà ¶nnte die Fusion als Misserfolg ausgelegt werden, was wiederum bà ¶se Konsequenzen, wie z.B. extreme Kursschwankungen in der Bà ¶rse und gar die Aufhebung der Fusion, mit sich bringen kà ¶nnte. Der letzte Schritt dieser Phase beinhaltet die Erfolgskontrolle. Es werden dabei die Ergebnisse der Fusion mit der Zielsetzung der Anfangsstrategie verglichen und eine Bilanz gezogen. Werden Abweichungen und Probleme bei der Umsetzung erkannt, wird versucht diesen entgegen zu steuern. 6. Kritische Erfolgsfaktoren von Mergers Acqusitions 6.1 Due Dilligence Due Dilligence hat eine sehr zentrale Bedeutung in allen Mergers und Akqusitionspozessen. Dieser Faktor kà ¶nnte sogar alleine den Erfolg oder Misserfolg einer Fusion bestimmen. „ Der Begriff „Due Diligence stammt aus den angelsà ¤chsischen Rechtswissenschaften und bedeutet unzureichend à ¼bersetzt „gebà ¼hrende Sorgfalt. Der Begriff hat à ¼ber die juristische Verwendung hinaus bei Mergers Acquisitions Anwendung gefunden und stellt bei heutigen Projekten die Grundlage zur Bewertung und Analyse einer Organisation dar. (Bischoff, Jà ¼rgen M.,2007 : 73 ) Im Wesentlichen verfolgt „ Due Dilligence drei Hauptziele: Endecken und beschreiben der wesentlichen Unterschiede zwischen den beiden Unternehmen und deren mà ¶gliche Auswirkungen Generierung von Integrationsrichtlinien sowie von Ansatzpunkten fà ¼r die erfolgreiche Gestaltung der Post-Merger-Phase Unterstà ¼tzung bei der Kaufentscheidung, der Preisfindung sowie zur Risikominimierung (Bischoff, Jà ¼rgen M., 2007 : 74) Die gewonnen Informationen von Due Dilligence bestimmen letztendlich den Umfang und den Schwerpunkt in der Post Merger Integration. Das Due Dilligence- Team besteht aus externen Spezialisten wie Wirtschaftsprà ¼fern, Anwà ¤lten und Unternehmensberatern und internen Mitarbeitern. Die Unternehmen arbeiten bewusst mit unternehmensexternen Spezialisten, weil die eigenen Mitarbeiter emotional und nicht neutral handeln kà ¶nnten. Das Due Dilligence- Team muss ein hohes Maß an Pflichtbewusstsein mitbringen, damit die Grà ¼ndlichkeit der Bewertung und die Interessen des Unternehmens nicht darunter leiden. Die Unternehmensbewertung sollte explizite Informationen à ¼ber den ausgewà ¤hlten Fusionspartner geben. Die zur Verfà ¼gung gestellten Informationen werden auf Finanzkraft, Unternehmenswert und Synergiepotenziale analysiert. Nach Abschluss der Prà ¼fung mà ¼sste der Auftraggeber der Due Dilligence in der Lage sein, zu entscheiden, ob es sich bei dem ausgewà ¤hlten Fusionspartner um ein geeignetes Unternehmen handelt. Ist dies der Fall so wird à ¼ber Due Dilligence eine Verhandlungsbasis fà ¼r die Entscheidung der weiteren Integrationsschritte zur Verfà ¼gung gestellt. (Blà ¶cher, 2002: 35ff) „ Die gewonnen Informationen werden dem Auftraggeber der Due Dilligence in so genannten Data Rooms zur Verfà ¼gung gestellt. Dabei kann es sich sowohl um elektronische Datenbanken als auch um Akten oder Dokumente handeln (Krà ¼ger, 2000: 157ff) 6.2 Personalmanagement Human Resources ist ein weiterer wichtiger Faktor, der zum Fusionserfolg beitrà ¤gt. Das gut ausgebildete Personal wie z.B. Entwickler , Fà ¼hrungskrà ¤fte und Fachleute gehà ¶ren zum „menschlichen Kapital eines Unternehmens. Da die Mitarbeiter ganz unterschiedlich auf die Verà ¤nderungen wà ¤hrend der Fusion reagieren, sollte das Unternehmen deren Auswirkung im Fusionsprozess nicht unterschà ¤tzen. (Klodt, H. , 2002:S. 106.) Das Humankapital beeinflusst eine Fusion positiv sowie negativ. Einerseits kann es als Motivation fà ¼r eine Motivation einer Fusion dienen, das ist dann der Fall, wenn ein Unternehmen auf der Suche nach qualifizierten Mitarbeitern im Zielunternehmen ist. Andererseits entsteht eine negative Beeinflussung, die ihren Ursprung in persà ¶nlichen Anliegen hat. Verlustà ¤ngste des Arbeitsplatzes oder Gehaltverschlechterung kà ¶nnen das qualitative Arbeiten erheblich mindern und fà ¼hren zu einer Skepsis gegenà ¼ber einer Fusion. Das kann sogar dazu fà ¼hren, dass kompetente Mitarbeiter das Unternehmen verlassen. Um das zu vermeiden, muss sich das Personalmanagement zur Aufgabe machen in direktem Kontakt zu den Mitarbeitern zu stehen. Die Organisation muss in der Integrationsphase Antworten auf offene Fragen haben und einen sicheren und ehrlichen Umgang mit den Mitarbeitern pflegen. Die Aufgaben des Personalmanagements kà ¶nnten folgendermaßen in den jeweiligen Fusionsphasen aussehen: In der Pre Merger Phase muss die Bedeutung des Human Kapitals geklà ¤rt werden, damit das Personal im Verlauf der Fusion ausreichend berà ¼cksichtigt wird. In der Merger- Phase werden sà ¤mtliche Mitarbeiterdaten, Lohnabrechnungen oder Arbeitzeiten ausgewertet und miteinander verglichen. So wird die Kombinierbarkeit der unterschiedlichen Strukturen und Systeme der Personalorganisationen auf eine Vereinheitlichung hin geprà ¼ft. In der Post Merger- Phase muss geklà ¤rt werden, zu welchem Zeitpunkt bestimmte Ziele erreicht werden sollen, ob und wann Umstrukturierungsmaßnahmen oder à ¼bergangsregelungen erfolgen und auf welche Art und Weise die Mitarbeiter zu informieren sind (Pribilla, P.: Personalmanagement bei Mergers Acquisitions, in: Picot, A./Nordmeyer, A./Pribilla, P. (Hrsg.), Stuttgart, 2000, S. 64-67.) Um all diese Maßnahmen durchfà ¼hren zu kà ¶nnen ist eine gezielte und gute Kommunikation unausweichlich. Dies kann à ¼ber verschiedene Wege erfolgen. Z.B. à ¼ber Mitarbeiterversammlungen, regelmà ¤ÃƒÅ¸ige Email und Newsletter oder Diskussionsforen. Ferner sollte dem Angestellten ermà ¶glicht werden, direkte Fragen an das Management zu stellen zu kà ¶nnen. . ( Grube, R./Tà ¶pfer, A., 2002, S. 152.) Schließlich erfolgt die eigentliche Integration durch die Integrationsteams, die nur die Aufgabe haben die Fusion zu koordinieren. Damit eine schnelle gegenseitige Akzeptanz unt

Statistical Analysis of Train Arrival Times

Statistical Analysis of Train Arrival Times Introduction In carrying out this project, the Researcher will be able to provide the reader with the findings of the project works through the use of Class Material and Statistical Data collected which was conveyed using the real-time analysis and Irish Rails Annual Report. In doing so, this will establish in short the output response by way of the trains arrival time. In addition, producing regression analysis graphs in terms of Null and Alternative Hypotheses being asked and relayed through the workings of Minitab (ANOVA (one way factor) will determine the P-value by way of the design of the experiment (DoE) The project will be focusing on the requirements set under the Public Service Contract between the National Transport Authority and Iarnrà ³d Éireann Concerning Compensation for Public Service Obligations pursuant to Dublin Transport Authority Act 2008 (as amended by the Public Transport Regulation Act 2009) and EC Regulation 1370/2007, Schedule B Performance Obligations of Iarnrà ³d Éireann to complete this project (Irish Rail 2017). This report will provide key information to be documented and relayed throughout this project, such as: Describing the process you are analysing, generically and technically. Designing an experiment that will allow you to determine the effect of the factor on the output response, run the experiment and gather the data appropriately and taking into account Sample size, Randomization, Independence and Previous results available. Providing statistical analysis of the experiment and describing the statistical evidence collected, in terms of Null and Alternative Hypotheses Show results of your experiment. In particular, does the factor affect the output response? Does your assumption, statistical and technical, seem reasonable for these data collected? Identify one area of weakness in your study and/or your results and suggest how a new study could investigate it to improve the performance of the process.      Ã‚   (Luu ,2017) In completion of this project the research hopes to reach an agreement based on the train time performance obligations against the researchers real-time data collected. This in turn has given rise to the question being asked by way of the Null and Alternative Hypotheses. In doing so it produces findings by way of graphs which focus on the residual analysis produced and P-value based on Irish rails 95% confidence requirement. Thereafter, determining the level of compliance being corresponded by Irish rail against real-time analysis output response carried out over a two week period. Results were achieved through the use of Irish Rail real time software application. Finally, the researcher himself has an added interest in the findings as he has spent the last 5 years using the service from Dublin to Galway and Galway to Dublin collectively and is fully aware of post -arrival time delays and their add -on effects that he has endured on arriving at his final destination and the knock on effects interlinked. Irish Rail company profile Iarnrà ³d Éireann is a service that provides passengers and freight rail services both intercity and regional services. Operating between Dublin, Belfast, Sligo, Ballina, Westport, Galway, Limerick, Ennis, Tralee, Cork, Waterford and Rosslare, Europort and Iarnrà ³d Éireann jointly operates the Dublin to Belfast Enterprise service with Northern Ireland Railways.( Irish Rail 2017) In addition the DART service operates between Greystones and Howth/Malahide. It also runs a commuter service in the Dublin area between Gorey, Drogheda, (Irish Rail 2017) Performance obligation punctuality and reliability Track Records Punctuality is set by the National Transport Authority (NTA) for all routes which regulates Irish Rails performance rates. Punctuality is defined as on time or within 10 minutes of arrival times. Delays outside of Iarnrà ³d Éireanns control are trucks hitting bridges or extreme weather conditions such as snow or fog (Irish Rail 2017). The NTA performance reports under the Public Service Obligation contract is measured against Iarnrà ³d Éireann punctuality records. This excludes delays as stated above and figures are independently verified by the NTA. Reliability simple put is whether the train operates or not. Train performance in terms of punctuality and reliability Galway to Dublin track performance results 2016 Period Dates Punctuality Reliability 01 Jan 01 to Jan 31 95.1% 100% 02 Feb 01 to Feb 28 96.4% 100% 03 Feb 29 to Mar 27 96.8% 100% 04 Mar 28 to Apr 24 94.9% 100% 05 Apr 25 to May 22 95.4% 100% 06 May 23 to Jun 19 95.5% 99.38% 07 Jun 20 to Jul 17 94.4% 100% 08 Jul 18 to Aug 14 94.3% 100% 09 Aug 15 to Sep 11 96.7% 100% 10 Sep 12 to Oct 09 97.9% 100% 11 Oct 10 to Nov 06 93.4% 100% 12 Nov 07 to Dec 04 92.6% 99.70% 13 Dec 05 to Dec 31 0.00% 0.00% Galway to Dublin track performance results 2015 (Irish Rail 2017) Period Dates Punctuality Reliability 01 Jan 01 to Jan 25 92.2% 99.83% 02 Jan 26 to Feb 22 98% 100% 03 Feb 23 to Mar 22 95.2% 100% 04 Mar 23 to Apr 19 95.8% 100% 05 Apr 20 to May 17 92.6% 100% 06 May 18 to Jun 14 96.9% 100% 07 Jun 15 to Jul 12 95.5% 100% 08 Jul 13 to Aug 09 93.3% 100% 09 Aug 10 to Sep 06 94.9% 100% 10 Sep 07 to Oct 04 96.3% 100% 11 Oct 05 to Nov 01 88.8% 99.07% 12 Nov 02 to Nov 29 80.2% 99.69% 13 Nov 30 to Dec 31 91.5% 100% Galway to Dublin track performance results 2014 (Irish Rail 2017) Period Dates Punctuality Reliability 01 Jan 01 to Jan 26 95.2% 99.83% 02 Jan 27 to Feb 23 91.2% 100% 03 Feb 24 to Mar 23 94.3% 100% 04 Mar 24 to Apr 20 97.7% 100% 05 Apr 21 to May 18 96.1% 100% 06 May 19 to Jun 15 96.5% 100% 07 Jun 16 to Jul 13 94.3% 100% 08 Jul 14 to Aug 10 94.8% 100% 09** Aug 11 to Sep 07 98.6% 100% 10 Sep 08 to Oct 05 95.8% 100% 11 Oct 06 to Nov 02 90.4% 100% 12 Nov 03 to Nov 30 89.8% 100% 13 Dec 01 to Dec 28 96.6% 99.71% (Irish Rail 2017) Design of Experiment In the undertaking of this project the design of the experiments (DoE) objective was to discover if the punctuality (Train Delay) of real time analysis meets the requirements set and if the tasks could be repeated would we get the same results or could the process be improved to achieve better results. In carrying out this experiment the topic choice untaken was to be of significant value to achieve the right information which in turn helps to design the experiment in the right manner otherwise this information could be mixed up with something else such as an observational study (Reilly 2017, pg 109). To differentiate from the above, a design of experiments was sets out to identify causes that may enable us to change the behaviour pattern and help improve the process. In achieving my final results this experiment considered the effect of a factor (Time of Day) on an output response (Different times of the Day). Additionally this experiment placed emphasis on a number of different train times (factor levels) which were randomly selected beforehand consisting of Peak and None peak times during the week. Hypothesis Testing To get a true value one can only assume that what is being relayed by the company is accurate. This should not be taken as being accurate until otherwise proven but one can only assume that the null hypothesis is true. In order to get a true reflection in statistics the theory of testing is called the null hypothesis (H0). Hypothesis is another word for theory, and it is null because at the outset it is neither proven nor disproven (Reilly 2017, pg. 68). In the task being carried out the objective is to prove or disprove that Irish rails punctuality clams mean is at 95% and to show how close or far from the 95% it is. Then you have to ask the question. What is the probability of the data, assuming that the null hypothesis is true, this probability is called the p-value (Reilly 2017, pg. 68).Then using the standard ÃŽÂ ± = 0.05 cut-off, the null hypothesis is rejected when p p > .05 also known as type one and two errors. The Null Hypothesis being asked. The null hypothesis (H0) Different times of the day does not affect the time of day. This means that all the factor levels according to the null hypothesis, that random variation is only present. The alternative hypothesis (H1) Different times of the day does have effect on the time of day. This means that the factor does have an effect on the response and that some of the variation in the response is explained by the factor. Single-Factor Experiments and ANOVA by software For the purpose of this project, A single-factor experiment was to be carried out, which considered the effect of one factor on a response as stated prior. Furthermore, other factors that could affect the arrival time, such as accidents on bridges and extreme weather conditions, where kept constant during this experiment by applying the principles of experiment design. Principles of Experimental Design in this case Replication To get a true measurement for each response three test was carried out for each factor level over two weeks. This then allows you to see how much random variationoccurs in the response even when the factor level remains the same, otherwise known as the error variance (Reilly 2017, pg 109). It must be noted that The term error does not convey as a mistake in this instance but simply takes into account impacts that could affect the overall result such as environmental impacts along with other underling facts for example driver error, trains not leaving stations on time, other trains impacts and peak travel times. Furthermore, it also must be noted that the learning effect should have no effect on the over final results in this case. The learning effects in this instance should not be correlated with random variation as this only amounts to unexplained variation and not with explained variation such as driver training which should be carried out under prior supervision in order to eliminate the learning effect. Randomisation In order to achieve a true reflection of the project in hand, the researcher projects logistics required the experiment to be performed in a random run and not that of fixed method. In order to achieve a fare random selection the researcher randomly picked days of the week Monday to Friday and every first to third day or second to fourth day simultaneously. This in turn allowed each train time on the track equal status over the project phase and not allowing any factor to be more prominent over another during the test regardless of the time permitted by the company Principles of Experimental Design in this case. The reason for this is that there may be some progressive change as stated prior addressing any concerns. Blocking Blocking was taken into account in this case but after the fact and not prior to the random section. This only became apparent to the researcher as the different days of the week could have an effect on the output response, as can be seen in the data below in some small part in this case. To get a true reflection of this the researcher would repeat the test again in a different blocking manner to see if the start of the week output response is greater than the end of the week over a longer period of time as the number of people travelling declines as the week progresses. This is one element of the test if repeated the researcher would look at in more detail. Data Collected from Real- time Analysis Different Time of Day (response) Time Of Day (Factor Levels) MON WED FRI MON WED FRI 06:30 08:41 5 4 5 0 5 4 09:30 12:00 12 6 8 2 4 3 13:05 15:43 7 6 3 0 2 8 15:05 17:42 8 14 1 9 7 3 19:20 21:47 4 -2 8 16 4 1 RESULTS Descriptive Statistics: Different time of the day Variable Levels N N* Mean SE Mean StDev Minimum Q1 Median Different time of the day 06:30 08:41 4 0 4.500 0.289 0.577 4.000 4.000 4.500 06:30 08:41 2 0 2.50 2.50 3.54 0.00 * 2.50 09:30- 12:00 2 0 7.00 5.00 7.07 2.00 * 7.00 09:30 12:00 4 0 5.25 1.11 2.22 3.00 3.25 5.00 13:05 15:43 6 0 4.33 1.28 3.14 0.00 1.50 4.50 15:05 17:42 4 0 5.25 1.93 3.86 1.00 1.50 5.50 15:05 -17:42 2 0 10.50 3.50 4.95 7.00 * 10.50 19:20 21:47 6 0 5.83 2.26 5.53 1.00 1.75 4.00 One-way ANOVA: Different time of the day versus factor Levels 4 in 1 overview Method Null hypothesis All means are equal Alternative hypothesis At least one mean is different Significance level ÃŽÂ ± = 0.05 Equal variances were assumed for the analysis. Factor Information Factor Levels Values Levels 8 06:30 08:41, 06:30 08:41, 09:30- 12:00, 09:30 12:00, 13:05 15:43, 15:05 17:42, 15:05 -17:42, 19:20 21:47 Model Summary S R-sq R-sq(adj) R-sq(pred) 3.98672 19.61% 0.00% 0.00% Means Levels N Mean StDev 95% CI 06:30 08:41 4 4.500 0.577 (0.366, 8.634) 06:30 08:41 2 2.50 3.54 (-3.35, 8.35) 09:30- 12:00 2 7.00 7.07 ( 1.15, 12.85) 09:30 12:00 4 5.25 2.22 ( 1.12, 9.38) 13:05 15:43 6 4.33 3.14 ( 0.96, 7.71) 15:05 17:42 4 5.25 3.86 ( 1.12, 9.38) 15:05 -17:42 2 10.50 4.95 ( 4.65, 16.35) 19:20 21:47 6 5.83 5.53 ( 2.46, 9.21) Pooled StDev = 3.98672 Regression Analysis Analysis of Variance In carrying out the Regression Analysis it is important to understand that the first hypothesis in regression formula is: (H0: ÃŽÂ ² = 0) or more importantly it accounts for the P-Value (Levels) in this case. In addition the null hypothesis states that X is not a useful predictor of Y, or graphically Meaning the H0: ÃŽÂ ² = 0 regression line is horizontal. Subsequently, If the null hypothesis is accepted, it may then indicate that there might be no predictive relationship at all between X and Y, and the analysis is over. But if this null hypothesis is rejected, it indicates that there is a predictive relationship between X and Y, and so it is useful to construct a regression equation for predicting values of Y. The second hypothesis is: H0: ÃŽÂ ± = 0 is not accounted for in this case as there is no constant present in results as stated below (Reilly 2017, pg. 97). Alternatively, If the null hypothesis is accepted, this means that the regression line may pass through the origin or that Y is directly proportional to X, so that any change in X would be matched by an identical percentage change in Y (Reilly 2017, pg. 98). Minitab by software output results as stated bellow. Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value Levels 7 85.30 12.19 0.77 0.621 Error 22 349.67 15.89 Total 29 434.97 The p-value for levels is 0.621, which is less than 5%, so we reject the hypothesis that the regression line is horizontal in this case. One-way ANOVA individual Observational Data Residuals vs Fits for Different time of the day In this case you can notice that on-peak times have consistently lower scores than the other train times. You also notice that the x-axis marks are unequally spaced. The length between the ticks is proportional to the number of scores (observations) for each arrival time The following observations Noted: The lines near the centre of each line represent the arrival mean. At a glance, you can see that the mean for each arrival looks significantly different. The vertical span of each line represents the 95% confidence interval for the mean of each arrival. Additional Observational Data Normal plot of Residuals for Different time of the day In this case the plot above indicates that the arrival times are reasonably normal. There is some scatter with one outlier; however the points are roughly speaking linear in this instance. Residual Histogram for Different time of the day In this case the result shows that the data are positively skewed (To The right). This means that the trains delay times might be much longer than expected, but could not be much earlier than expected, because the train cannot leave the last station prior to its scheduled time. Residuals vs Order for Different time of the day In this case the time series plot shows a spike, this shows where there was a late arrival outside the expected arrival time before returning to expected level again. This correlates with outlier in the additional data stated above. Conclusion References http://www.irishrail.ie/about-us/train-performance http://www.irishrail.ie/about-us/2014-performance http://www.irishrail.ie/about-us/2015-performance

7 Deadly Sins Of Fantasy :: essays research papers

Seven Deadly Sins of Fantasy Imagination is the key to the universe. In order for one to use it, they may create a world of their own. Fantasy literature uses imagination as its key source, and everyday life as its secondary. Not one element can bring a piece of the art form together. Society lives on both factors as well. Fantasy art can either make or brake a world, just by the ideas and thoughts that are used with the imagination. This fantasized world is mainly inspired by reality and especially religious beliefs. Considering that fantasy literature is one of the oldest works, that any period of history can relate to; many stories seem to be fictional, if analyzed they become parallel to any cultural society. The characters in fantasy art works may represent actual people in everyday life, for example an evil witch may be compared to a mean motherly figure. One major contribution to fairy tales is the religious influence of all societies. Gluttony, greed, sloth, envy, wrath, pride, and lust are the seven most deadliest sins of the Biblical universe, all these examples are related to the idea of temptation, which brings the fairy world happiness. Chesterton wrote, "The whole happiness of fairyland hangs upon a thread, upon one thread. Cinderella may have a dress woven on supernatural looms and blazing with unearthly brilliance; but she must be back when the clock strikes twelve. The king may invite fairies to the christening, but he must invite all the fairies of frightful results will follow. Bluebeard's wife may open all doors but one. A promise is broken to a cat, and the whole world goes wrong. A promise is broken to a yellow dwarf, and the whole world goes wrong. A girl may be the bride of the God of Love himself if Green 2 she never tries to see him; she sees him, and he vanishes away. A girl is given a box on condition she does not open it; she opens it, and all the evils of this world rush out at her. A man and woman are put in a garden on condition that they do not eat one fruit; they eat it, and lose their joy in all the fruits of the earth," (256). "Wrath 1: violent anger: RAGE 2: divine punishment," (Web. dictionary, 609), in other words, revenge. Take Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the wicked stepmother hated her stepdaughter with such anger that she became angry enough to commit violence.

Space Bubble Essay -- essays research papers

Violation of Space   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On today’s episode of â€Å"Know Your Principles of Sociology,† the question is how important are the mundane rules of life? Our contestants in Dr. Marin’s class helped us out with finding the answer. To answer this they simply violated an unwritten social norm that people live by in our culture. They decided to violate the space theory. Weather it be to randomly hug people or sit extremely close to them, these brave young souls went to the farthest ends to observe and document the expressions of those being violated and those of others witnessing it. We now will go to one of the students to tell us about the experiment.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In article 14 of Cargan and Ballantine’s text Sociological Footprints, they discuss the variable of nonverbal communication. Anyone can learn the words of a language but to understand the gestures and facial expressions is difficult unless raised in that culture. That is why understanding nonverbal communication is important, cause without this knowledge then outsiders would be confused and problems may occur.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In our experiment we decided to invade people’s personal â€Å"bubble†. To do this we secretly videotaped them while others went up and got close to them. Now normally in an American society we have our space and we do not like it when strangers intrude on that space. If done then the typical reaction is to step back and gain the space between back. That ...

Billy Collins: analysis of his poems Essay

Arguably the most popular poet in America, Billy Collins provides readers with two types of poetry that is nothing like typical poetry. One of his unique styles is writing as if the poem could be read like a novel. The other type brings humor and whimsy to his work, yet he hints at a seriousness that lies beneath the surface. Both styles of poetry are easy to read, but take a second look to realize what the Collins is intending the reader to understand. Billy Collins is an exceptionally talented poet whose writing at first can be taken to be a simple comedy but when read more carefully, it can be interpreted as a far more complex script. First readings of the poems I Chop Some Parsley While Listening To Art Blakey’s Version Of Three Blind Mice, Victorias Secret, and Shoveling Snow with Buddha might convince the reader that Collins is offering poems that are clever yet easy to read and understand. A quick reading of Collins poems shows a similarity of his witty style, although the subject matter of each is different.First glance readings of these poems might lead readers to the following interpretations. A man wasting his time flipping through the pages of a Victorias Secret magazine. A man shoveling snow from a driveway with Buddha. Lastly, a man daydreaming about the childrens rhyme Three Blind Mice. However, if these poems are read more carefully they reveal a hidden richness in their meanings. In the first reading of the poem Victorias Secret, the narrator is flipping through the pages of a lingerie magazine. He describes the outfits of the eight models in great detail. For example, wearing a deeply scalloped / flame-stitched halter top / with padded push-up styling / and easy side-zip tap pants. Also, the narrator evaluates the mood of each model by the expression on her face. For instance, looks at me over her bare shoulder, / cannot hide the shadow of annoyance in her brow. None of the models in the photographs seem to like narrator looking at them. Yet, even still the narrator continues to look at the next model until he realizes that he has wasted too much time already. He s till has so much to do and it sounds as if there is a commotion going on in his house. The dog is barking, the phone is ringing, and the rain is beating on the roof. In a second and deeper reading of Victorias Secret Collins describes each of the models in an absurd pose. This is from the hard work the modeling agencies put the girls through. Collins is making a mockery of the girls and in greater sense, the modeling agencies. For example, her mouth is the  shape of petulance. a confused mixture of pain and surprise / as if she had stepped on a tack arching one eyebrow slightly and best of all stretched out catlike Since, Collins is a college professor in New York City, all of these big modeling agencies advertisements are all over the streets, that is why he is making such a mockery of them. All of these models are in awkward poses that they obviously are not comfortable in but, still agree to do them just to be in the photo. Another thought Collins is trying to get across to the reader is the amount of time the narrator had spent looking at pictures. The narrator r epresents every average everyday guy who since childhood has spent a lot of time looking at pictures. This child had grown up to be a man and still imprinted in his memory, a good time is looking at pictures; of course, now of societies definition of beautiful women. The last thought Collins throws into this poem is the idea that life is too short to waste. Life is rushing by like a mad, swollen river. He puts the image of roses blossoming in the garden and the next minute it is snowing. In the first reading of Shoveling Snow with Buddha the narrator is shoveling a driveway with Buddha. This is something that is very unlike Buddhas usual environment and unlike his usual action. Once the narrator gets past that point, it becomes a story of two guys shoveling a driveway. They work and work We toss the light power into the clean air. Then the narrator realizes that what they are doing is more than just shoveling snow; they are practicing a religion. This is so much better than a sermon in church, Thought the poem Buddha is mostly silent until the snow is piled high all around them, he t hen asks if they could go inside and play cards after they finish. This strikes the narrator excitement and he tells Buddha that not only will they play cards but, will also drink some hot chocolate. Buddha is satisfied with the narrators reply and returns to his work.In a second and deeper reading of Shoveling Snow with Buddha Collins portrays Buddha as a well respected person. The first point Collins is trying to get reader to understand is that respected men are humble. Respected men do work without complaining and they do not stop until the goal is reached. smile so wide it wraps itself around the waist of the universe, Buddha keeps on shoveling. purpose of existence, but he is too busy to hear me. All morning long we work. This is why Buddha is shoveling snow, from a driveway that is not even his. The setting of this  poem also relates to Collins childhood, where he grew up in New York and after the snow, shoveling the driveway is not an easy task for one man to do. When the narrator says This is the true religion, the religion of snow, / and sunlight and winter geese barking in the sky, / I say, This is where Collins inputs religion into the poem. The goal of Buddhism is enlightenment; in the poem the narrator truly feels enlightened by shoveling snow. That is why he appreciates things such as the sunlight and the geese barking in the sky. The final point Collins puts in this poem is when Buddha asks can we go inside and play cards? Since Buddha is interpreted as a normal human in this poem, every human needs a source of motivation no matter how much he wants to help. Playing cards is Buddhas source of motivation in this poem.In the first reading of I Chop Some Parsley While Listening to Art Blakey’s Version of Three Blind Mice the narrator is chopping vegetables while listening to some music. When the song Three Blind Mice comes on he goes into a daydream about how the mice went blind, how they could have found each other, and why they would run after a farmers wife. The narrator then slips into thoughts of the mice without eyes and tails venturing through moist grass and on the floor along the baseboards. The narrator then becomes saddened by his thoughts and blames his wet eyes on the dicing of an onion.In a second and deeper reading of I Chop Some Parsley While Listening to Art Blakey’s Version of Three Blind Mice Collins uses the narrator as a guilty cynic. is the cynics answer. cynic who always lounges within me. A cynic is one who believes in selfishness as the motivation of human actions and disbelieves in selflessness. Collins compares the cynic of the childrens rhyme to the cynic inside the narrator. Although, the narrator in this poem does feel remorse for the mice; this is the point Collins is trying to get the reader to understand. There is always a way for a person to go from cynical to respectful. Yet, in this poem the narrator tries to elude the reader by making reference to the fumes from the onion for causing his wet eyes. It is only ironic that the next song that comes to play is Freddie Hubbards mournful trumpet on Blue Moon. The music in this poem demonstrate s Collins love for jazz, even though it is a mournful trumpet playing he uses his own hobbies to illustrate a feeling for the reader. Collins is known for using detailed writing to bold the element of imagery in his poetry. In Victorias Secret Collins goes into great  detail to what the models are wearing. wearing a deeply scalloped / flame-stitched halter top / with padded push-up styling / and easy side-zip tap pants. whisperweight camisole with / keyhole closure and a point desprit mesh back. wearing nothing / but this stretch panne velvet bodysuit / with a low sweetheart neckline / featuring molded cups and adjustable straps. All of these images are easily put into the readers mind and allow the reader to actually see the models outfits without viewing the picture in the poem. Collins even displays the images of the models expression in the poem. a confused mixture of pain and surprise / as if she had stepped on a tack, she is putting about something, / all lower lip and cheekbone. Lastly, when Collins describes how quickly life can pass by he uses phrases like One minute roses are opening in the garden. And describes the night as black and silky. Imagery in Shoveling Snow with Buddha is evident as well. over the mountain / of his bare, round shoulder. cold mist on our faces. glittering white snow. winter geese barking in the sky, and drive off with a broken heater fan and a song on the radio. All of these phrases make the reader feel as if they are in the middle of winter along with Buddha and the narrator. The reader feels the cold mist, hears the geese barking and the song on the radio and, sees the half naked Buddha tossing the glittering white snow over his shoulder. Collins also adds a sense of home with our boots stand dripping by the door. That phrase familiarizes readers with their own memories of coming back to a warm cozy home from the harsh cold of the winter. The imagery in I Chop Some Parsley While Listening to Art Blakey’s Version of Three Blind Mice is not as apparent as the other poems but, is still spot able. When Collins refers to the tiny darkness, of the blind mice the reader can sense the tiny dark tunnel the mice live in. Also the reader feels the narrators wet stinging eyes, along with the sound of the mournful trumpet. The reader can as well smell the chopping of the vegetables, such as the parsley and most of all the fumes from the diced onion. In the poems I Chop Some Parsley While Listening To Art Blakey’s Version Of Three Blind Mice, Victorias Secret, and Shoveling Snow with Buddha the  imagery element is astonishing. A reader of these poems not only sees the images in their head, but can also smell, hear, and feel what the characters in the poem can. Collins is so talented that he creates a duplicate world for the reader with his poetic language. He uses this imagery to involve the reader in his poem. Collins likes to call this kind of poetry travel poetry a mental travel from the beginning of the poem to the ending. To be interested in the entire poem, not just one line that sounds good. Billy Collins says in an interview with John Bush When you convey the tone, youre really conveying the spirit of the poem. Mark Conway describes Collins tone The pokerfaced tone of Collins poems never lets readers be sure if the tone in his poetry is respectful or mocking. (287). On the other hand, many would argue with Conway. Just like most of Collins other poems, a deeper reading can help find the true meaning of the poem. With that meaning the tone is simple to see. In Victorias Secret Collins puts each model in an awkward pose. her mouth is the shape of petulance. a confused mixture of pain and surprise / as if she had stepped on a tack arching one eyebrow slightly and best of all stretched out catlike All of these models look ridiculous. The tone in this poem is mockery; Collins portrays this by using imagery as well. He paints a picture of the model in the readers head in an absurd poise with a somewhat constipated look on their face. Also, Collins makes the reader feel as if all the models are stuck up and dont want to be looked at. Do you have a problem withthat?! Why do I care, her eyes say, were all going to hell anyway. He shows that the models are stuck up by literally attacking one model by using these phrases in his stanza, she is pouting about something, Perhaps her ice cream has tumbled / out of its cone Perhaps she has been waiting all day / for a new sofa to be delivered, The tone of this poem is very comical and by the end of it the reader sees the models as immature juveniles. In the poem Shoveling Snow with Buddha the tone is much more respectful. Collins shows his respect for men like Buddha through his literal language. Even the season is wrong for him. This is not implied by his serene expression, Buddha is symbolized as a selfless man who is shoveling a driveway that not even his. Buddha will not stop the job until the goal is  reached, Collins is very admiral of this type of behavior. He has thrown himself into shoveling snow / as if it were the purpose of his existence, and he inside his generous pocket of silence, It is evident in the poem that Collins respects Buddha but, with the use of his language he makes the reader respect Buddha. Since Buddha is personified by all the natural good people in the world, the reader appreciates these kind of people much more by the end of the poem. In the poem I Chop Some Parsley While Listening To Art Blakey’s Version Of Three Blind Mice, the tone is not evident until Collins uses the term cynic. After this word the poem goes from a comical tone to a mournful tone. but the thought of them without eyes / and now without tails to trail through the moist grass, has the cynic who always lounges within me / up off his couch and at the window / trying to hide the rising softness that he feels. From the daydream that Collins put the narrator in, the narrator becomes very sad and mournful for these three blind mice whose tails have been cut off. wet stinging / in my own eyes, is what the narrator has by the end of the poem. Collins use of language in this poem makes the reader feel the same way as the narrator by the end of the poem. In an interview with Dave Weich, Collins describes his initial tone Usually I try to create a hospitable tone at the beginning of a poem. This makes the poem easy to get into and understand. Then Collins adds a twist and puts in a more complex tone that usually makes the reader feel the same way the narrator in the story feels. The tone in Victorias Secret is very comical and by the end of it the reader sees the models as immature juveniles. The tone in Shoveling Snow with Buddha is respectful and makes the reader respect all selfless people like Buddha. And lastly the tone in I Chop Some Parsley While Listening To Art Blakey’s Version Of Three Blind Mice, is sad and mournful and makes readers have wet stinging eyes just as the narrator at the end of the poem. Collins is very talented at bringing the feeling of his poetry into the readers selves. Billy Collins is an exceptionally talented poet whose writing at first can be taken to be a simple comedy but when read more carefully, it can be  interpreted as a far more complex script. His use of imagery and tone give the readers an interactive movie in their heads when they read his literature. As a college professor, Collins is very talented at making all readers of his poetry understand the meaning and feeling in his poems. Philip Jason describes Collins poetry as suggests why he so often uses humor to lead the reader into a place, often a serious and surprising place, of the poems conclusion. However, Collins poetry cannot be skimmed if the reader wants the true meaning and feeling to be apparent to them. A second and deeper reading is needed to truly feel the poem. Collins poetry is humble and vibrant with language, imagery and, tone and serves as a sample for all American poets. Works Cited Bush, John. A Conversation with Billy Collins. http://www.windriverpress.com/critique/collins_b.html. Critique Magazine. Collins, Billy. Picnic, Lightning. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1998. Conway, Mark. Billy Collins. The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Literature. Vol. 1. 2006. Jason, Philip. Critical Survey of Poetry. Vol. 2. California: Salem Press,Inc., 2003. 8 vols. Lee, Michelle. Poetry Criticism. Vol. 68. New York: Thomas Gale, 2006. 83 vols. Saunder, Alletha. Interview with Billy Collins. Summer 2006. http://www.uidaho.edu/fugue/billy_collins.htm. Fugue, University of Idaho. Varnes, Kathrine. An exaltation of forms: contemporary. Michigan: University ofMichigan Press, 2002. Weich, Dave. Billy Collins, Bringing Poetry to the Public. January 14, 2004. http://www.powells.com/authors/collins.html. Powells.com.

Food and Culture: a Cross Cultural Look at Eating Habits Essay

No matter where we are from, eating is one of the most personal experiences of life. Everyone finds enjoyment and comfort in eating foods associated with their early days and heritage, but personal sensations and perceptions on eating are merely a fraction of the global picture. Learning about other cultures, their values, and what they seek will enhance relationships between individuals throughout communities and the nation. Eating habits provide a very conducive way for promoting mutual understanding between everyone. According to dictionary.com, food is any nourishing substance ingested in the body to provide energy and sustain life and growth. â€Å"Food habits refer to the way people use food, including from how it is selected, obtained, and distributed to who prepares it, serves it, and eats it† (Kittler, 2008, p. 2). Early food habits derived strictly from what was available in the immediate environment (McWilliams, 2003, p. 5). â€Å"The country where a person is born and resides shapes the food patterns of the individual and families† (McWilliams, 2003, p. 15). Food helps to establish specific cultures, and has diverse influences on the ways of life of people around the world. Spain, China, and the United States are three societies with vastly different backgrounds and eating customs that contribute to their unique culture and national identity. Food possesses meaning within different cultures beyond simply that of providing nutrients. People often question, why food? If food is thought about solely as the avenue of obtaining the necessary nutrients to live, people will miss the influence and pleasure food has on the rich multitude of cultural landscapes. Food is full of meaning and has become a major form of social exchange. Everyone has heard the acclaimed saying â€Å"you are what you eat,† and many traditional civilizations believe that what they ingest will impact their personal character. But, the saying alone does not move the social world into eating. However, corresponding with the law of Contagion, which states that â€Å"once in contact, always in contact,† when two objects touch, their properties are transferred into the touched object (Rozin, 1996, p. 83). We can view this as those who have prepared, gathered, and served food, are expected to have passed their own characteristics into that food (Rozin, 1996, p.84). Thus, now back to â€Å"you are what you eat,† these elements have become part of the consumer. Every nibble of food involves social integration. Food is a system of communication that constitutes knowledge and information. â€Å"Substances, techniques of preparation, habits are all part of a system of differences in signification† (Counihan, 2008, p. 30). All facts pertaining to food are organized similarly to that of other modes of communication. Food symbolizes and signifies the importance of economic, social, political, religious, and ethnic values among different societies (Montanari, 2006, p.133). Food habits convey the culture of whom it has touched. Food is the warehouse of â€Å"traditions and collective identity† (Montanari, 2006, p. 133). It allows people to partake in their national past. â€Å"Food and cultural identities are the product of history† (Montanari, 2006, p. 135). The historical background of preparation and cooking is rooted deep within traditional ritualization, and permits people to experience the memory of their ancestors in their contemporary life. Food gives people commonality, serving as a means for a way of life. Food, security, and love are our three basic needs. They are intertwined, so we cannot think of any one without the others. These three needs compose our life, and our life can be understood through these needs. Food is a central figure throughout society. It is the â€Å"foundation of every economy† (Counihan, 1997, p. 1). Food assists in interpreting social differences, gender differences, and family and community relationships. It links everything that is significant to people and strengthens social ties. Food is something so common to all, yet it denotes incredibly different ideals from table to table. Food habits are culturally consistent modes of behavior relating to food that have been established by individuals reared in a given cultural tradition (Counihan, 2008, p. 18). The specific behaviors towards food are interrelated with other culture-specific behaviors in the same community. â€Å"Humans do not nourish themselves from natural nutrients, nor from pure dietary principles, but from cultured food-stuffs, chosen and prepared according to laws of compatibility and rules of propriety unique to each cultural area† (Counihan, 2008, p. 76). Food is essential to ethnic, religious, and regional identity. Before delving into the implications of food in the diverse cultural contexts of Spain, China, and the United States, it is important to first understand the background elements of food and how it serves to establish specific cultures. There are four ways to understanding and categorize the food habits and the role of food in different cultures. They include â€Å"frequency of food consumption; ways a culture traditionally prepares and seasons food; daily, weekly, and yearly use of food; and changes in food functions that emerge during structural growth in a culture† (Kittler, 2008, p. 7). The core and complementary foods model groups food together based on their rate of consumption. According to this framework, core foods are those regularly consumed in a person’s diet, most likely on a daily basis, at the heart of food habits (Kittler, 2008, p. 7). Complementary foods are important in making the core balanced. They add the familiar flavors associated with the core foods (Kittler, 2008, p. 8). Secondary foods are widely but less frequently consumed, often eaten at least once a week or more, but not daily (Kittler, 2008, p. 7). Last, are the peripheral foods, which are consumed irregularly. Changes in food behaviors happen most in peripheral, where individual food choices are more characteristic than cultural group habit, and least in core (Kittler, 2008, p. 8). Foods demonstrate a great deal variability according to distinctive regional locations. What defines a meal differs throughout cultures, and unique, local variations are especially prevalent among different regional identities. â€Å"The structural analysis of meal patterns and meal cycles reveals clues about complex social relations and the significance of certain events in a society† (Kittler, 2008, p.9). Every culture establishes which foods are needed to comprise a meal, and what someone eats defines his or her identity within the certain cultural contexts. Specific foods are served for different meals depending on your particular societal customs. Other elements that can define a meal include who prepares it, the type of preparation used, who eats it, and the portion size. Beyond the meal itself is the sequence in which the individual meals take place. The meal cycle is a routine of how many meals are eaten a day and when they are eaten (Kittler, 2008, p. 10). Meal patterns generally follow what is culturally customary and acceptable, but food selection is primarily motivated by taste. Taste is a cultural element, and differing tastes occur among different peoples and regions throughout the globe. Food preference is based on specific locations where â€Å"definitions of taste belong to the cultural heritage† (Montanari, 2006, p. 61) of that society. Local ecological circumstances also influence what a culture will eat and individual food habits. It requires a collective adaptation to their explicit environmental surroundings. A person can only eat what is available and can be obtained, and the cultural group will determine whether certain foods are edible or inedible. Eating choices are largely impacted by the cultural values, beliefs, and practices ingrained by society. Spain is a country of much diversity. Its cuisines are historically rooted and geographically preserved. Spain is composed of distinctive territories of cultures, each with its own unique social customs and culinary traditions. Every region holds certain characteristics of Spain’s diverse terrain, and continues to have its own local variations of Spanish cuisine. Cooking is divided by the different regional preparation methods. Stewing is common in the North, roasting is common in the Central region, and deep-fried foods are very popular in the South (Kittler, 2008, p. 164). Although each region differs in culinary traditions and origins, this paper will look beyond the strong regional ties and explore Spain’s gastronomic heritage as a whole. The Spanish passion for quality cooking is shared throughout the nation. After the oppression of the Franco regime, Spaniards hold a lot of pride in their cultural identities. Food ranks high among their cultural values, shaping the lives of many Spaniards, who are deeply rooted in their regional heritages. Spain’s meal cycle is one way in which their food habits show cultural-specificity and vary drastically from those found in China and the United States. Their traditional meal pattern consists of four meals and some snacks spread throughout day (Kittler, 2008, p. 165). Spaniards eat a light breakfast (desayuno) at around 8:00 a. m. consisting of coffee or chocolate accompanied by bread, churros, or another pastry. Sometimes, a midmorning breakfast of either sausage, fried squid, bread with tomato, or an omelet is eaten at 11:00 a. m. A light snack, tapas, is consumed close to 1:00 p. m. to prelude their three-course lunch starting at 2:00 p. m. (Kittler, 2008, p. 165) Keeping consistent with the rest of its European counterparts, Spain’s largest fare is lunch (almuerzo). Lunch is the main meal, and is typically eaten at home. The first course is the lighter portion, consisting of a soup or salad, while the second course is your classic fish or meat dish. Dessert follows, and can be some simple fruit or cheese, a traditional Spanish flan, or a different sweet pastry or cake. (Spanish eating customs) Many businesses close during the hours between 2:00-5:00 p. m. in order to accommodate lunch and maybe a nap, known as siesta. After being well rested, a Spaniard can enjoy tea and pastries (merienda) eaten between 5:00 and 6:00 p. m. (Kittler, 2008, p. 165). More tapas are eaten at 8:00 or 9:00 p. m. to fill time before dinner. Dinner (cena) is finally served between 9:00 and 11:00 p. m. It includes three light courses like soup, salad, sandwiches or omelets and fruit (Kittler, 2008, p.165). Spain has a large variety of eating customs that one would generally only find in a Spanish kitchen. The most well known eating habit is that of tapas. Tapas are small plates of food to share with a group of friends before a meal. In Spain, eating tapas is an entirely separate dining experience that does not replace an actual meal (Barrenechea, 2005, p. 53). Tapas are not to be eaten at home. Its literal meaning implies going out: â€Å"de tapeo means barhopping, or the art of eating while standing† (Barrenechea, 2005, p. 53). There are many varieties offered, and they are generally finger foods. Another culture-specific custom is that of sobremesa. The word sobremesa translates to â€Å"over the table,† referring to the long-lasting conversations after meals. Instead of finishing the last bite and leaving, Spaniards often stay seated at the table conversing, savoring the company of friends, and sometimes even sharing another drink. (Spanish eating customs) The infamous siesta, already mentioned above, is deeply rooted in Spanish heritage, dating back to agrarian society when farmers needed to rest and digest after the large lunch. Now, it is a time for people to return to their home and families to eat. Family nourishment is a value taken very seriously among Spanirds. Some specialty food items found in Spain include, aceite de oliva (olive oil), jamones de Espana (Spanish cured hams), Chorizo (national sausage of Spain), bacalao (salt Cod), tortilla Espanola (potato and onion omelet), croquetas, gazpacho, paella, flan, and sangria (Barrenechea, 2005, p. 39). All of the aforementioned eating traditions carry a lot of historical significance, and come to symbolize Spain’s cultural identity. The ways in which Spain treats and prepares some of its food also differs from the food habits of China or the United States. Wine and coffee are beverages that seem to be universal to the world as they can literally be found anywhere. However, looking at the two from the cultural context of Spain, one will find that wine and coffee actually have distinct meanings based on regional variations. Whether out at a restaurant or home with family, wine is typical to drink at just about any meal in Spain (Spanish eating customs). It is so common in Spain, that it is often cheaper than water. Coffee is a Spanish phenomenon, and many Spaniards drink several cups throughout the course of one day. Coffee also traditionally follows meals, served after the dessert (Spanish eating customs). It is customary to sit down when sipping on coffee, as to-go (para llevar) cups are very uncommon. The Spanish take pride in enjoying all kinds of food, even a simple cup of coffee. China has a strong national identity deeply rooted in its history. A civilizational standard emerged long ago, and its foods are primarily regional and ethnic, not having to do with social class. China has four distinctive styles of cooking largely influenced by geography and availability. The South is home of Cantonese food, with many elegant dishes. The East relies heavily on seafood and paper-wrapped foods. The North is famous for Peking duck, sweet and sour sauces, wheat noodles, and Mongolian influence. The final region is the West with the Szechwan style cooking of hot spices and use of oils. China’s vast size has influenced the need for collective adaptation within the different regional environments. While these local ecological circumstances influence the certain available foods of each territory, China’s strong beliefs in their tradition and ancestors have demonstrated a large commonality among the Chinese identity. China’s cultural heritage has largely impacted the collective expression of standardized values and food habits. As a non-western nation, China will vary dramatically from the westernized countries of Spain and the United States in its ethnic beliefs and identity. The eating habits of the Chinese play an important role in the patterns of their meals and are very culture-specific. The Chinese eat three meals a day along with additional snacks. Breakfast is typically composed of hot rice or millet porridge, and congee. Lunch is a smaller version of dinner serving soup, a rice or wheat dish, vegetables, and fish or meat. Sliced fruit can be offered when finished eating. (Kittler, 2008, p. 327) The two most important components of a typical Chinese meal are the soup and a large fish cooked and presented whole to end the meal (McWilliams, 2003). The Chinese have two customary rules dating back to ancestral traditions that are needed for every meal. There must be a balance between yin and yang foods to ensure physical and emotional harmony and to protect the body from illness, and there also has to be proper amounts of fan and cai (Kittler, 2008, p. 327). Fan is the foods made from grains and served in a separate bowl to each diner. Cai is the cooked meats and vegetables to add flavor that are shared from bowls in center of table. Fan is the primary item in a meal, and a meal is not complete without it; but it does not need cai. (Kittler, 2008, p. 327) The rules for consumption in China are very different from what is customary in Spain and the United States. Etiquette is a large form of group association in China. There are many specific customs to be aware of when eating a Chinese meal. Proper behavior was determined over 4,000 years ago and many practices continue to be used today (Kittler, 2008, p. 328). The traditional eating utensils include chopsticks and a porcelain, flat-bottomed spoon for soup. Teacups and rice bowls are also made of porcelain. Very few foods are eaten with hands. All of the serving bowls are traditionally served at the same time on a lazy Susan in the center of the table. Each place setting has a bowl of rice or noodles, and each person takes some of the closest item from the communal plate, which is rotated until all items have reached all the people at the table. All diners should take the same amount of cai. Younger diners cannot eat until the elders have begun, and it is seen as rude to reject food. Serve beverages to others before self. Both hands should be used to offer and take a cup of tea. Wine and other alcoholic drinks should not be consumed alone. It is bad manners to eat rice or noodles with the bowl on the table, so it should be raised to the mouth. It is also bad luck to lay chopsticks on the top of the rice bowl or drop them. Do not stick chopsticks straight up in the rice bowl for it symbolizes an offering to the dead. More specific rules beyond that of proper etiquette include not making any noise while eating (except slurping soup), not grabbing food, not eating too fast, not putting food back on the communal plate after tasting it, and not picking one’s teeth. It is considered very polite to compliment the host during the meal on deliciousness of food and on their good taste and wisdom. (Kittler, 2008, p. 328) The Chinese diet is another expression of group association. What is eaten in China’s specific cultural contexts differs from foods Spaniards and Americans would find in their typical diets. The Chinese eat a large mix of food and avoid very little. Rice is the backbone of all Chinese meals. Wheat made as wontons are also widely used. Dairy products are not found in the Chinese diet, but extensive use of soy products serves as a substitute for calcium and protein. Pork is the most common meat, but religion and cost limit how much meat is consumed. Many Chinese are actually vegetarians, making extensive use of the available vegetables. (McWilliams, 2003) Distinctively Chinese vegetables are snow peas, bamboo shoots, chrysanthemum greens, water chestnuts, bitter melon, and lotus root. Noodles are very popular, and often take the form in soup or pan-fried and topped with vegetables. Eggs are also frequently eaten. (Kittler, 2008, p. 325) Foods that would seem unfamiliar and strange to western societies are actually ranked with high value in the Chinese culture. Foods such as snakes, frogs, turtles, sea cucumbers (sea slugs), seahorses, as well as insects like scorpions are all consumed regularly. Hot soup or tea is the beverage of choice. (Kittler, 2008, p. 325) Although environmental constraints influence the Chinese culture, the people do not let it affect their lifestyle. They use cooking methods, such as stir-frying, steaming, deep-fat frying, simmering, and roasting, that all make best use of the limited available fuel. The Chinese also work to find fresh ingredients, which is why many markets sell live animals. (Kittler, 2008, p. 325) Despite the ecological situations, the Chinese people will not sacrifice the importance of their food habits within their cultural identity. The United States is composed of many diverse cultures, and is very unique among countries in the world. It has one of the largest immigrant populations in the world, which has widely influenced diets and available food. Founded by immigrants, the U. S. is home to many different ethnic, religious, and regional groups, each with its own culture-specific eating behaviors. The U. S. has often been considered a â€Å"melting pot,† blending all the different ethnic, religious and regional backgrounds together. While it might be difficult to find a universal, national identity in the U. S. , the broadening of cultural awareness has led to a greater understanding of new food patterns. Changes in the choices of food and habits have occurred throughout the years. â€Å"It is the intricate interplay between food habits of the past and the present, the old and the new, and the traditional and the innovative that is the hallmark of the American diet† (Kittler, 2008, p. 1). American cuisine is far from homogeneous. The diversity of cultures within the United States incorporates the cuisines of numerous communities throughout the world. Eating habits found in the Spanish and Chinese cultures have had some influence among the regional variations in America. Local food preferences are key to the American regional identity (Kittler, 2008, p. 473). Regional food habits are prepared based on the territory’s available local ingredients, which depend on the agricultural environment and seasonal accessibility. The strong relations between place and food suggest the significance on the quality of local food items (Kittler, 2008, p. 474). There are three defining factors of regional fare. The first is that local foods have a strong impact on the development of a specific regional cuisine. The second aspect is ethnic and religious practices, especially when it comes to specialty foods. The third factor is local history, which is related to particular dishes (Kittler, 2008, p.474). The variety of ethnic and cultural backgrounds will only keep enriching the regional foods of America and expand our cultural awareness. Culinary trends can be observed in the four regions of the United States: Northeast, South, Midwest, and West. Geography and the immediate environment, Native Americans, and immigrants have all influenced the culinary identities of each region. Within the Northeast are New England and the Mid-Atlantic. Each region shared similar Native American societies, followed by European settlements, and now more immigrants from all over world (Kittler, 2008, p. 476). The traditional foods come from the Atlantic Ocean, the native and new produce, and the many freshwater rivers and lakes. In New England, seafood is prominent, especially cod. Indigenous game already existed and beef was brought over by early immigrants. Corn was the foundation of the diet, and beans also had high importance. Root vegetables were common, and wild berries, grapes, and plums were the common fruits, until immigrants planted apple orchards. Maple syrup was the preferred sweetener. (Kittler, 2008, p. 477) The warmer climate and fertile lands in the Mid-Atlantic made for a greater abundance of native foods. Coastal waters provided crustaceans, while estuaries provided birds, and the freshwater had a variety of fish. New foods thrived throughout the region. (Kittler, 2008, p. 477) The Midwest marks the Great Plains region in the center of America. The regional food is typical homestead and farm food (Kittler, 2008, p. 486). The food is known as typical American cuisine. It involved simple preparation of prime meat or poultry, accompanied with vegetables, potatoes, and fresh bread. A meal consists of a filling breakfast for a good start to the day, robust soups and stews to re-energize the body, and a tasty homemade dessert at the end. (Kittler, 2008, p. 486) Food traditions in the Midwest have been maintained from generation to generation. Southern food reflects the times of plantation farms. Corn dishes, pork, sweet potatoes, and greens were the foundation of this regional cuisine (Kittler, 2008, p. 495). The southern lifestyle created a culture of politeness and friendliness. It was also a region of many fruits, nuts, game, fish, and seafood. The South has access to the coast, the gulf, rivers, and woodlands. The people learned culinary cuisines from the Indians, the Settlers, and the African slaves. (Kittler, 2008, p. 495) The final region of the West is the largest region in the U. S. with a large diversity of terrain from the icy tundra of Alaska to volcanic islands of Hawaii (Kittler, 2008, p. 508). The West is home to the tallest mountains, vast fertile valleys and coastal plains, a scenic desert, and a temperate rainforest. The people were able to inherit the diverse food habits from the natives on the variety of lands. Immigrants came from all directions to occupy the West. Its vast size was largely unknown so most inhabitants survived on dried meat, pork, beans, and corn. Growth increased the available food supply, and expensive goods were offered. (Kittler, 2008, p. 509) Depending on the specific region of the West, different foods prospered. Immigrants from a plethora of countries all came to the United States and added their culture-specific complementary foods, which enhanced the existing core foods in America. Although the national identity of the United States is comprised of diverse regional identities from all around the globe, distinctive meal patterns have been established. Meals start much earlier than in Spain, and the rules are not as strict as in China. Meals primarily consist of a large breakfast, small lunch, and large dinner, with the occasional distinctive brunch. The traditional American breakfast offers a range of foods such as pancakes, waffles, bacon, eggs, toast, and cereal. Lunch is served between 12:00 p. m. and 2:00 p. m. , and consists of nothing big, solely a sandwich or salad. Brunch represents a distinct American cultural eating habit. It is a combination of breakfast and lunch, mostly eaten on weekends and ranges from 11:00 a. m. to 2:30 p. m. Dinner is served between 6:00 p. m. and 8 p. m. It typically begins with appetizers, then a larger hot meal, and finally a sweet dessert. In the U. S. , appetizers are served before the soup or salad, which is then followed by the main course, and lastly by dessert. Americans also tend to value food more for its nutritional content and health effects than for any symbolic use (Kittler, 2008, p. 7). Every different cultural group creates standards reflective of their priorities. The dining etiquette of the U. S. is highly associated with social values. Social influences have a strong impact on eating cultures. Immediately upon sitting down at the table one should put their napkin on their lap. Another rule is the positioning of knife and fork when finished eating. Crossing the knife and fork means that you are still working on your food, but placing them parallel on plate signifies that you have finished eating. It is also acceptable to refuse specific foods or drinks without an explanation. Opposite of the traditional meals in China, in the U. S. , it is very popular to socialize in homes, backyards, restaurants, or other public places. It is not unusual to have a backyard barbeque or picnic in the park. (USA: Language, culture, customs and etiquette). As, an individualistic nation, the sociocultural contexts that influence food intake and choice most in the United States are related more to personal factors. As the world and its food become further explored, new desires about the world of food will emerge. However, according to the development perspective of food culture, structural changes in society can lead to changes in the functions of food and its habits within that culture (Kittler, 2008, p. 7). Is the rising trend towards consumerism and the desire to earn a lot of money ruining the traditional meanings of food? Globalization is the structural change from local and regional organizations to a universal worldwide organization. Globalization is coupled with the food culture change of consumerization, the transition of a society from indigenous producers to consumers of mass-produced foods. (Kittler, 2008, p. 11) Seasonal foods are now available any time of year and specialty products can now be bought presliced, precooked, and prepackaged for immediate consumption. Modernization encompasses the socioeconomic shift from new technologies replacing muscle power and its parallel food change is commoditization from homemade to manufactured foods. Fresh foods are now processed and marketed commodities. (Kittler, 2008, p. 11) Urbanization from rural to urban residence leads to delocalization of producers to consumers only, where the connections between harvesting, cooking, and eating are lost for meals purchased in convenience markets or fast-food joints. (Kittler, 2008, p.11). Lastly, migration from original home to new settings is shared by acculturation to new culture and new foods and diminishing traditional food habits (Kittler, 2008, p. 12). Further research should be conducted on the impact the changes resulting from development have on traditional food cultures and identity as well as quality of food. The Slow Food movement is one effort to reverse the structural and food culture changes (Kittler, 2008, p. 12). To take this research even further is to examine the role of advertising, which is related to globalization and the structural changes in society. Advertising is correlated with food preference (Kittler, 2008, p. 16). Advertising unconsciously transforms our views of food into an entirely new meaning (Counihan, 2008, p. 32). Foods are no longer viewed as a product or substance, but as an experience and situation. Consumer/brand loyalty is now the emotional appeal to foods. Food is seen as entertainment, and the enjoyment of eating is through reading or seeing on TV, instead of physically tasting (Kittler, 2008, p. 16). Food is slowly but surely losing in its substance and rising in function (Counihan, 2008, p.34). Beyond the meanings of food, the effects of eating and food choice can also be examined in relation to how the physiological characteristics of age, gender, and body image are now portrayed in different cultures. The cultural contexts of foods are transitioning along with its influences on food habits. Food establishes cultures in many different ways, and the diverse food habits can tell a lot about a specific cultural identity. There are many different ways in which sociocultural contexts influence eating and food choice. Spain, China, and the United States are three countries each with unique culture-specific values and beliefs, and they are each drastically different from one another. Western society versus eastern society coupled with individualistic or collectivistic nations can strongly impact the eating habits of a culture. Spain is a western-collectivist nation with much technological advancement coupled with the commonality of strong national pride. Spain is deeply rooted in its traditional food habits, and geography has been a large contributor to the regional variations of Spanish cuisines. However, the collective enjoyment of all food elements is a defining feature among Spanish culture. China is an eastern-collectivist nation, which means it is not as developed technologically, but share many commonalities that are more spiritually based within their national identity. Etiquette and diets are a major form of group association within China, and the consumption rules have been historically planted since the times of their ancestors. Eating a certain way establishes association or membership within a group. Environmental limitations affects which foods will be available in each region, but food customs have established a standard collectivism among the Chinese people. The United States is a western-individualistic nation. The cultural identity of the United States has been founded by immigrants, and therefore contains diverse ethnical, religious, and religious beliefs. Social values have had a strong influence on American food culture based on the desire interact with the diverse population. Social class plays an important role of what food is available in the U. S. The individualistic mindset to satisfy the individual self has established consumerism to be prevalent among the American culture. Food offers diverse perspectives about other cultures. Examining food habits is a means for understanding the varying beliefs and behaviors found in other cultures. Humans are omnivores, which provides them with the opportunity to have a choice of what they want to eat, so how they incorporate food into their lives serves high importance. Each cultural group has a different and unique attitude towards life, built upon a universal understanding and ranking of values (Kittler, 2008, p. 37). These values form a collective standard of preferences and priorities contained by certain beliefs. Eating a particular way establishes association or membership within a group. Food habits among each cultural group are linked to their specific beliefs or ethnic behaviors. The development of food habits shows that food means more than just providing nutritional value (Kittler, 2008, p. 3).